SCIENCE

STANDARD

EIGHT

TER1.

CROP PRODUCTION

AND MANAGEM ENT

India is an agricultural
country.
We
all totally
depend on agriculture
for our
basic needs like
food, clothing
and
shelter.

Food

is

essential

for

our

survival.

It provides
energy and materials
required
for the growth and maintenance
of our
body. Indian population
had grown by
21.34%

between

1991

and

2001.

It

is

expected to exceed by 20% in 2050.
How do you think
food can be provided
to such a large number of people? In
order to provide
sufficient
food for a
larger
population,
regular
production,
proper management, storage and
application
of recent technology
are to
be implemented
in agriculture.
MORE TO KNOW

Population

of

India

around

1,192,196,919

billion)

people.

in 2010 is

(1.19

It is growing
to produce rice
1.1.

faster
than
and wheat.

AGRICULTURAL

its

ability

PRACTICES

With the increase
in population
, the
demand for food has also gone up.
The available
land for agriculture
has
been decreasing.
Therefore
improved,
agricultural
practices
have to be
introduced.
132

Crop Production

and Management

All the activities
in the cultivation
_ _ o Promote
to harvesting
organisms

which are involved
0 Retain
of crops from sowing

i)

to bring

human use is

nutrient

PRACTICES

rich

a long

period

soil

that deals with 0 Helps in the
and animals p|am3 (weeds)

called

Manual ploughing:

1'2BASIC

for

growth of useful
microare known as agricultural

practices.
to the top
Agriculture
: Science
the growing of plants
for

moisture

It

agriculture.
is

OF the

CROP PRODUCTIONagriculture.

Ploughing

is

removal

and

traditional

A farmer

ploughs

methods

the

undesirable

done in two ways

one of
old

of

field

of

Production
of crops involves
several With
activities
carried
out by the farmers
over a period of time. These activities
are given below.
o Preparation
of soil and sowing m
o Adding manure and fertilizer
O
o Irrigation
H
o Protection

from

o Harvesting

g

°

ITI

Storage
1.2.1.

weeds

r

and Marketing
PREPARATION

OF SOIL

AND SOWING Ploughing
ii)
Machinery
days ploughing
driven
by the
cultivator

ploughing:
Now a
is done by tractor
cultivator.
The use of

saves

labour

and

time.

Before sowing the seeds, we have
to prepare the soil.
Preparation
of soil
is the first
essential
stage for cultivation
of crops.Turning
and loosening
the
soil

involves,

i)

Ploughing

ii)

Levelling

or tilling
and

iii)
Manuring
i) P|oughing:|t
process

is

o Provides

Tractor
133
LIJ

the

of loosening

Ploughing

order

is

to

important

because

good aeration

to

breathe

and

soil.

cultivator

it,

roots

in

3 PIOU9h PU"ed bl

3 Pair

Of bU"S

Crop Production

and Management

The other ploughing
tools
shovel,
hoe and pickaxe.

are spade,

ii)
Levelling:
The ploughed field
may
have big pieces of soil
crumbs, so, it
is necessary to break these crumbs
with

the

uniform

leveller.

It

also

ensures

irrigation.

iii)Manuring:
Sometimes manure
is added before tilling.
It helps
proper mixing of manure with soil.

in

Sowing: It is the most important
step of crop production.
The process
of putting
seeds into the soil
is called
sowing. Before sowing, the land must
be watered.
Seeds used for sowing
should be of good quality,
healthy
and
free from infection.
Sowing is done by
two

methods.

i) Manual sowing: It is the traditional
method of sowing where the seeds
are sown manually by scattering
them

in

the

moist

soil.

Maa/sowin.
ii) Seed
Drill: It is amethod
of sowing
the

seeds through

using
sharp

two or three
ends.

the

tunnel

pipes

or

having

Seed drill
helps in uniform
distribution
of seeds, covering
the
seed after
sowing and preventing
the
seeds from being damaged by birds.

Swing y sed //.
1.2.2.
ADDING
FERTILIZERS

All
the

MANURE AND

the plants
get
soil.
Repeated

their
nutrients
from
cultivation
of crops

make the
soil
deficient
farmers
add manure
and

the soil to ensure
proper nutrients.
The substances
to the
soil
in

the

healthy

that

in minerals.
fertilizers

the

crops

which
are
added
the
form
of nutrients

growth

of plants

So
to

get

for

are called

manure

or

fertilizers.

1.2.3.

IRRIGATION

Plants need water for germination,
drawing nutrients
and preparing
their
food by photosynthesis.
The process
to crops in
intervals
is
from crop to

of supplying
water
the field
at different
called
irrigation.
It varies
crop, season to season

and

soil.

soil

to

Some of the sources of irrigation
well,
tube wells,
ponds, lakes,
dams

and

are
rivers,

canals.

134

Methods of irrigation
i)

Traditional

Method

In our country
traditional
irrigation
like,
o pulley

system

o chain

pump and

o lever

system

have

been

used

systems

of

(moat)

(rahat)
for

centuries

to

lift

water from water reservoirs
and supply
it to the field
for irrigation.
These
methods are cheaper but not much
efficient.

ii)

Modern

Methods

Furrow
irrigation
I

T

Modern methods
I

of irrigation

I

basin drip
irrigation

irrigation

Sprinkler
irrigation
Furrow
water

irrigation:
is

allowed

In this
to

enter

method
the

field

through channels of furrows made
between two rows of crop. e.g.,
sugar
cane, banana, paddy, etc.

Furrow

irrigation

Crop Production
Basin
field
e.g.

and Management

irrigation:
In this
is just filled
with
Paddy field.

Basin irrigation
Sprinkler
irrigation:
is

method the
water.

used

where

the

This
soil

water for
sprinkled

a long time.
by sprinklers.

Sprinkler

irrigation

irrigation

cannot

retain

Here the water
e.g. Lawn

Drip irrigation:
In this irrigation
water falls
drop by drop direct
position
of the roots,
so it is
drip irrigation.
It is the best
save water.
It helps to irrigate
banana, brinjal,
etc.

Drip

is

the
at the
called
method to
grapes,

irrigatn

135

U)
(3
H
rn

Z
(3
rn

Crop Production

and Management

Care must be taken not to water They compete with crops for water,
the field
excessively.
Excess water on nutrients,
space and light
therefore
the field
may cause a condition
called
affect
their
growth.
I

'
h'
h h h

grits;

.

Oggmg W IC may arm I e Some weeds become poisonous.

The common types
. Grass

of weeds are

be manually

removed by hand by

MORE 1-0 KNOWuprooting
. The Karakum Canal

them or by using

in tools

like

some

hand fork,

khurpa

and

Turkmanisthan
is the longest
harrOw'
LU irrigation
canal in the world.
It is
U over 1300 km long.
2
PAP
Parambikulam Aliyar
LIJ Project
ranks first
in India in the top
8

10

list

of

U) storage
Indira

the

World

for

its

It

is

massive

capacity.
Gandhi

Canal

one

of

the biggest
canal project
in India.
Starts
from Harike Barrage at T
Sultanpore.
_
Tools used for weeding
ii)

Chemical

Control:

The

chemical

1-2-4PROTECTION FROM 3l'eI;iI§"§3f dowhiét"
ha'3?.fI{Z CID:
WEEDS (UNWANIED are called
weedicides.
eg. Dalapon,
PIANTS) metachlor,
24 Dich|orophenoxy
Weeds are undesirable
plants
aeeiie
acid9iOWiii9

iiaiiiiaii)'

RemOVaI Of these

aiOii9

Wiiii

Weeds IS CaIIed

iiie

CiOP

Cause water

Excess

use

of

chemical

and |and pO||utiOn_

WeeCiiii9
Weeding SiiOUiCi
be Cieiie
Tracesofthesepoisonouschemicals
iiieii
and iiieie
may remain in crops themselves.
Therefore
it is very important
to use
them

with

The

extreme

weeds

must

caution.
be

removed

because,
136

Weedicide
Does

it

sprayer
affect

the

_ . person who sprays it?.
')
I. Yes certainly.
But we can
5}

..

prevent

by using

the mask.

MORE TO KNOW
Bioweedicides

are

the

mechanism

of using microorganism
such as
fungi and bacteria
used to destroy
weeds.

1.2.5.

HARVESTING

weedicides

Once the crop gets matured,
it has
to be gathered.
The process of cutting
and gathering
a matured crop is known
as harvesting.
All

is

over

the

world

celebrated

with

(Tamilnadu),

(Punjab),
harvest

Bihu

harvest

excitement.
(Assam),

Onam (Kerala),
festivals

or

a machine

Crop Production

Pongal

Holi

etc.,

celebrated

What is your experience
harvesting?
Harvesting
ourcountryis
eitherdone
sickle

season

are the
in

India.

in
of paddy in
manually by

called

harvester.

and Management

In small farms crops are usually
cut
down using a hand held tool called

Manual Harvesting
a sickle.
called

. jl
§.
Harvester

In big

farms

harvester

combine

a large
is

vehicle

used.

combine

Grains are seperated
from the stalks
by the process of threshing.
This is
carried
out by beating the cut stalks
against
hard floor
or a machine called
mechanical

Tl7anua/

thresher.

threshing

137
HDNHIDS

Crop Production

and Management

The chaff
(pieces of straw and husk
after
threshing)
is separated
from the
whole grain by winnowing.

MORE TO KNOW

Green Revolution:
The massive step
taken to augment food production
by adopting
modern agricultural
practices
in India.
1.2.6.
STORAGE
MARKETING

AND

Grains are kept safe from moisture,
insects
and microorganisms.
lfthey
are
not kept in a proper manner they will
get spoiled
and cannot be consumed.
Farmers store grains
in jute bags
and meta||icbins.
In a large scale the
grains are stored in godowns, silos,
(very tall
cement tanks) and granaries.
Fresh fruits
and vegetables
have
much moisture
content.
And thus they
get spoilt
soon. Therefore
they are
stored in cold storage.
MORE TO KNOW .

Neem leaves,

salt,

castor oil also
microorganism.

turmeric

prevent

and

pests

and

MARKETING

Increase
in agricultural
production
alone will
not bring about prosperity
for
farmers.
It is important
that agricultural
product fetches
a remunerative
price.
Warehousing and marketing
facilities
are essential
to ensure this strategy.
Government has taken more steps
to assist
marketing
of agricultural
product and to promote the status

of

small
farmers.
has established

to

Tamilnadu
"Uzhavar

Government
Sandhai"

satisfy
the need of consumer
small scale village
farmers.
zhavar
138

Sandhai"

and the

Regulated markets eliminate
unhealthy
marketing
practices
and
exploitation
of the products
by
middleman. The government provides
loan at very low rate of interest
to the
farmers

for

cultivation.

MORE TO KNOW

State warehousing
corporations
provide
storage facilities
for
agricultural
product,
fertilizers
Thanjavur
Bowl

of

is

said

to be the

etc.,

Rice

Tamilnadu.

Agmark:

Agmark grading

standardization

is

and

a central

sector

scheme to check the quality
and
standard
for agricultural
products.
The grades given are Grade 1, 2,
3, 4 or Special,
Good, Fair and
Ordinary.
1.3.

CROP ROTATION

What will
happen if the same crop
is grown again and again on the same
land? By repeated planting
ofthe same
plant a part of minerals
gets depleted
in the soil.
It then leads to very poor
yield.
One way of improving
the crop
yield
is by crop rotation.
In this method
different
crops are grown alternately.
The practice
crop and the
ACTIVITY

of growing
pulse crop

a cereal
alternately

in

1.2

Take a trowel
and carefully
dig up a
pea plant or any leguminous
plant
from the garden. Wash off the mud
and observe
on the
roots

the
bead like
structures
called
nodules.

Crop Production
the

same

called

field

as crop

and Management
in

successive

season

is

rotation.

Leguminous plants
have root
nodules associated
with symbiotic
bacteria
which fix atmospheric
nitrogen.
For example wheat and paddy
(plants
need nitrogen
to make protein,
they can't
use nitrogen
directly
from
the air)
absorb more nitrogen
from soil.

This loss of nitrogen
naturally
by leguminous
has symbiotic
bacteria
nodu|es.eg.
pea, soya,
cultivated
after
wheat
1.4.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
AGRICULTURE

can be replaced
plants which
in their
root
bean are
or paddy.

IN

Biotechnology
is the field
of applied
biology
that involves
the use of living
organisms and bioprocesses
in
engineering,
technology,
medicine and
other field
requiring
bioproducts.
Biotechnology
research

has also

activities

in

revolutionised
the

area

of

agriculture.
There are seven different
techniques
that are used in plant improvement.
1. Selection:
a desirable

It is
crop.

a process

of choosing

2. Hybridisation:
A hybrid
(new
variety)
is produced by crossing
the
already
existing
two varities
with
desirable
qualities.
3. Polyploid

breeding:

increase

chromosomal

the

Method to
number.

139
HDNHIDS

Crop Production

and Management

4. Mutation
breeding:
Radiations(UV
and Xrays)
induces mutation
to
develop new variety
of crops.
5. Protoplast
fusion:
Production
of
hybrids
by the fusion
of protoplasts
along with nuclei
of two differnet
species.
6. Tissue culture:
tissue
in artificial,

Culturing
the
controlled,

plant
aseptic

conditions

(in

virto)

to

raise

plantlets.

7. Genetic engineering:
Its objective
is to identify,
isolate
and introduce
a desirable
gene/genes into a crop
plant that normaly do not possess
them. These new plants whose
genes are modified/transferred
are
called
trangenic
plants.
Genetic

engineering

Genetic engineering
is a part of
biotechnology.
It offers
new hope to
the farmers who are struggling
hard
with plant pests and diseases.
The aim of agricultural
is to give transgenic
desirable

traits

o Disease

/

biotechnology
plants
carrying

like

Insect

/

Herbicide

resistant.

olncreased
efficiency.

photosynthetic

o Nitrogen

fixing

ability.

o Increased
size of storage
seeds, fruits
and vegetables.
o Oil

seeds

(soya)

rich

in

roots,

PUFA (poly

unsaturatedfattyacid)recommended
forheart
patients.
o Potatoes with vaccines,
improves
starch and vitamin
A is produced.
Genetically

modified

biofertilizers,

(GM) seeds,

biofuels

are

also

produced.
1.5.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
FOOD PROCESSING

IN

Food processing
industry
is
the oldest
and largest
industry
using biotechnological
processes.
Biotechnology
in food processing
is
used to improve existing
processes
such

as

o Production

of

o Processing

aids.

additives

and

Improving
of microorganisms
in
orderto
improve process,
control,
yield,
safety
and quality
of the processed
products.
Application

of

biotechnology

in

processing
o Gene

of

food

modification

and

o Development of
vaccines
vitamins
o Improving
consistency

transfer.

recombinant
and proteins.

the quality,
of fermented

safety
foods.

and

o Improving
of microorganisms
in
order to improve process,
control
and yield
of the processed products.
o Improving
the processing
properties
eg., Development of
the "f|avr
Savr, tomato" variety,
genetically
modified
to reduce its
ripening
Bioethics

rate.
of genetic

engineering

Besides many benifits,
the ethical,
social
and legal
implications
of these potent gene
140

Crop Production

and Management

technologies
have led to considerable
concern about
of accidentally
producing
new pathogens responsible
diseases or developing
genetic
monsters.
MORE To

possibility
fatal

KNow

Biotechnology
Can we list
the processed
helps in used in your daily
life?
p r o mo t i n g
greater

the
for

fruit

1. Soft

foods

drinks.

and vegetable
2_ Chips
consumption
3
for healthy
'
nutrition.
5.

4.

ADOLESCENCE: It

is

the

fact

that,

flesh,

blood

and

bones

are

hidden

under

a

cover of skin in your body. You also have thoughts
and feelings,
that are not
visible.
But they have an important
role in making you the special
person that
you are.
2.1.
ADOLESCENCE AND
PUBERTY:
The word
Adolescence

is

derived

from

the

Latin

word

'adolescere'

which means to grow. The period of transition
from childhood
to adulthood
is
called
adolescence.
The World Health Organization
(WHO) defines
adolescence
as
the period of life
between 11 and 19 years of age. Since adolescent
period
covers the "teens period",
adolescents
are usually
called
teenagers.
It is a
period when lots of changes take place in the body and mind. Hormonal changes
result
in unusual swings in emotions.
Adolescents
shoot up in height and gain

weight.
The growth spurt begins two years earlier
for girls
than for boys. But
it lasts
longer for boys. The rapidly
changing body proportions
and the new
sensations
attributed
to sexual development
confuse and cause anxiety
to the
adolescents.

Puberty:
puberty is the period in life
when the body's
reproductive
system gets
ready to work. Generally,
boys attain
puberty at the age of 14 to 15 years,
while girls
reach puberty at a comparatively
lower age of 11 to 12 years.
Changes at Puberty:
The following
changes take place in the body of boys and
girls
at Puberty
1. Increase
in Height:
There is a sudden increase
in the height of both boys and
girls
during puberty.
The rate of growth in height varies
from person to person. Some may grow rapidly
at the start
of puberty and then slow down, while as others may grow gradually.
The height of an individual
depends upon the genes which are inherited
from
parents.

2. Change in Body Shape: The changes occurring
in adolescent
boys and girls
are
different.
In girls
hips become broader and the pelvic
region widens.
In boys,
shoulders
broaden and the body muscles grow more than that of the girls.
3. Change in Voice: At puberty the voice box or the larynx
begins to grow. The
larynx
in boys is larger
than that in girls.
The voice box in boys can be seen
as the Adam's
Apple, in their
throat
In boys, the voice becomes deep and harsh,
where as girls
have high pitched
voice.
4. Increased
activity
of Sweat and Sebaceous glands:
The secretion
of sweat and
sebaceous glands (Oil glands)
increases
during puberty.
This causes acne and
pimples on the face of boys and girls
at this time.
5. Development of Sex Organs: The Reproductive
Organs in boys and girls
become
fully
functional
at Puberty.
In boys, the male sex organs like
the testes
and
penis develop completely.
The testes
start
producing
sperms.
In girls,
the ovary enlarges
and eggs begin to mature. Ovaries start
releasing
matured eggs. These sex organs produce sex hormones, which play an important
role in the process of reproduction
and in the development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Apart from these changes that are taking
place in emotional,
mental and intellectual
areas, they may experience
various
moods such as being
happy, sad, angry, excited
or irritated.
2.2. SECONDARYSEXUAL CHARACTERS: Certain
characters
help to distinguish
the
male from the female. They are called
secondary sexual characters.
Some of the
secondary sexual characters
that develop in girls
and boys are as follows:
Boys:
1. Facial
hairs such as beard and moustaches develop.
2. Hair develops
under the armpit,
under chest and in the pubic regions.
3. Voice becomes
deeper.
4. Muscles develop,
and shoulder
becomes broad.
5. Increase
in
weight.
Girls:
1. Development and enlargement
of breasts.
2. Hair develops under the
armpit and in the pubic regions.
3. Hips broaden and pelvic
region widens
4. Initiation
of menstrual
cycle.
5. Deposition
of fat around hips, these
changes which occur at adolescence
are controlled
by hormones.
2.3.

DUCTLESS

GLANDS

The word gland means having some secretions.
There are two types of glands.
(Pimple:
A small papule or pustule.
Pimples are sebaceous glands that are
infected
by bacteria,
become inflamed
and fill
with pus.)
1. Exocrine gland
gland with duct
2. Endocrine gland
gland without
duct.

The exocrine
gland secretes
enzymes which are important
for digestion.
The
ductless
or endocrine
glands secrete
hormones. They are special
chemical
substances
that make wonders in our body.
The following
are the important
Endocrine Glands (Ductless)
present in our body.
Pancreas
Ovary (Female),
Testes (Male)
Pituitary
,Thyroid,Pancreas,
Adrenal

The secretions

of the

ductless

glands

(hormones)

are carried

away by the

blood

stream.

functions
brain.
It
all other

of these glands:
1. Pituitary
gland:
It is located
is called
as the master gland because it controls
the
endocrine
glads Your growth depends '
on the secretion

just below the
functioning
of
of the

pituitary
gland.
It secretes
growth hormone. A person having less growth hormone
remains very short(Dwarfism)
; on the other hand, a person having much growth
hormone
. becomes very tall
(Gigantism).
secretion
leads to a condition
called
acromegaly.
2. Thyroid
gland:
It is located
in the throat
region.
It secrets
a hormone
called
thyroxine.
In adults,
excess thyroxine
leads thyroid
disease.
The
function
of thyroxine
is to control
the rate of Metabolism,
growth and
respiration.
The deficiency
of thyroxine
hormone in children
is known as cretinism.
It slows
down growth and mental development.
Sometimes the gland may enlarge
causing a
disease

called

Goitre.

3. Pancreas: Pancreas is located
just below the stomach in the body.
Pancreas
is both exocrine
and endocrine.
The endocrine
part is called
Islets
of
Iangerhans.
It has alpha and beta cells,
which secretes
glucagon and insulin.
Both control
sugar metabolism
in the body.
Deficiency
of insulin
in the body causes a disease known as diabetes
mellitus.
4. Adrenal gland: These are also known as supra renal glands,
as they are
located
just on the top of the kidneys.
It secretes
adrenalin
hormone. This
hormone is produced during stress
or emergency situations.
It regulates
heart
beat, breathing
rate,
blood pressure etc.
5. Testes and ovaries:
Testes and ovaries
secrete
sex hormones. Testes produce
testosterone
and ovaries
produce oestrogen
hormone.
2.4.

ROLE OF HORMONES IN

REPRODUCTION

Most hormones are at work from the moment you are born. Sex hormones are
different
because they start
to work later
on. They gradually
prepare the body
for reproduction.
The sex hormones are responsible
for the fundamental
change in
growth and development and stimulate
the developments
of secondary sexual
characters.

The testes
and the ovaries
are the reproductive
Organs; both are stimulated
by
the pituitary
hormone during puberty.
In male, the testes
produces the male sex hormone testosterone.
This hormone
helps in the development and maintenance of the primary and secondary sexual
characters
and functions
of sperms.
In female, the ovaries
secrete
estrogen
and progesterone
responsible
for the
primary and secondary sexual characters.
Apart from testes
and ovaries
the Adrenal Cortex also secretes
steroid
hormones
in both the sexes. These hormones are responsible
for adolescent
growth spurt.
2.5.

REPRODUCTIVE

PHASE

OF LIFE

IN

HUMANS

The phase in an individual's life
during which there is production
of gametes is
called
Reproductive
Phase. In females it is normally
between 13 to 50 years,
and
in males, it is from the age of 13 to life
long.
The reproductive
age may vary
from person to person.
The following
are the various
reproductive
phases in the life
of a female.
1. Ovulation:
Release of an ovum from the ovary
usually
one egg is released
every month.
2. Menstruation
or the period:
This is the outward sign of the routine
cycle of
egg production
and hormone change in a woman's
body. It takes about 3
5 days.
3. Pregnancy: When the egg gets fertilized
by the sperm, the zygote is implanted
in the uterus for further
development this
results
in pregnancy.
4. Menopause: The menopause marks the end of the reproductive
phase of a woman's
life,
the chief outward sign is the cessation
(stop)
of the monthly flow of
menstrual
blood. The usual age is around 50.
2.6.

SEX DETERMINATION

Chromosomes are thread like
structures
present in the nucleus of the cell.
the cells
contain
23 pairs of chromosomes, The last pair of chromosome is
different
in males and females.
The last pair determines
the sex, so it is
called

as

sex

All

chromosome.

Sex chromosomes are of two types, These are named as X. and Y chromosomes.
Usually
a woman has two X chromosomes (XX) and male has one X
and one Y
chromosome (XY), in their
cells.
During gamete (reproductive
cell)
formation

the

number

of

chromosomes

is

reduced

into

half.

(46

chromosomes

are

reduced

into

23). When a sperm containing
X chromosome fertilizes
the egg, the zygote will
have two X (XX) chromosomes. The zygote will
develop into a female child.
Similarly,
when a sperm containing
Y chromosome fertilizes
the egg, the
fertilized
egg will
have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome (XY), and it
will
develop into a male child.
Now you know that the sex chromosomes of the father
determine
the sex of a
child.
The belief
that the mother is responsible
for the sex of her baby is
completely
wrong.
2.7. REPRODUCTIVEHEALTH: during adolescence
growing children
need special
attention
towards diet,
exercise
and personal
hygiene.
The personal
hygiene
includes
female and male reproductive
health.
The following
are some of the measures that girls
and boys need to take to
maintain
personal
hygiene.
o Take bath atleast
once a day, paying special
attention
to underarms,
groins
and genitals.
o Change the underwear daily.
The underclothes
should be made
of

cotton.

Menstrual
hygienics:
Menstruation
in females is as natural
as our regular
physiological
activities
like
breathing,
drinking,
eating,
urinating
and defecation
etc.,
It
is a cyclical
process that is present in all the mammalian females.
So It is a
natural
phenomena, that
is neither
to be worried
nor to be ashamed. Sanitary
napkins (pads) or a pad
made of clean soft cloth which can absorb moisture
should be used for absorbing
menstrual
flow.
0 Sanitary
napkins or cloth
should be changed frequently
depending upon the menstrual
flow.
If a cloth
is being used repeatedly,
it
should be cleaned with soap and hot water and dried in sunlight
for reuse.
o
Wash with soap and water before using a fresh napkin.
2.7.1.

Nutritional

Needs:

The

adolescents

need

more

calories

and

other

nutrients

due to spurt in growth and increase
in physical
activity.
The nutritional
deficiencies
during this period not only retard
the physical
growth,
but also
impair the intellectual
development and delays sexual maturation.
The diet of
adolescents
should meet the demands of physical
and intellectual
growth,
provide
adequate reserves
for illness
/ pregnancy and prevent onset of adulthood
diseases
related
to nutrition.
e.g.,
Hypotension
and osteoporosis.
(Bones become
brittle)

A very good amount of proteins
and carbohydrate
is necessary during
this growth period.
Apart from that,
adolescents
need to keep in mind the
following
dietary
consideration:
Minerals:
Since there is an increase
in skeletal
mass and blood volume, the body
needs calcium,
phosphorous and iron.
Calcium:
Calcium intake
needs to be increased
to prevent osteoporosis
in later
life.
It is present in milk and milk products.
Iodine:
It helps to prevent thyroid
gland related
diseases.
Iron:
Lack of iron in the diet results
in anemia. To make up for the loss,
have
a diet rich in iron.
In boys, iron deficiency
occurs due to muscle spurt if it
is not adequately
supplemented.
In girls,
iron deficiency
occurs due to
menstruation
in addition
to the spurt in muscular growth it it is not adequately
supplemented.
Green leafy vegetables,
jaggery
and whole pulses are rich sources of iron.
During adolescent
period,
take hygienic
balanced diet.
2.7.2.
Personal Hygiene: personal
hygiene is a clear indicator
of man's
personality.
It should start
from the hair tip and ends down at the toes.
10 tips for your personal
hygiene:
1. Shower or bath daily.
2. Always wash your hands before and after
meals.
3.Keep fingernails
clean,
and avoid wearing nail polishes
or jewellery.
4.
Wash your teeth and mouth before and after
each meal.
5. Avoid touching
your
face, nose, or mouth, while preparing
food.
6. Avoid coughing or sneezing
around food.
7. If you want to taste the food, use a clean spoon.
8.
Change your clothes,
especially
undergarments,
everyday.
9. Do not defecate
in open field.
Use clean toilets
for defecatio
10. If you are not well,
do no
take

self

medication.

2.7.3.
Prevention
and protection
from sexual and other abuses
Preventing
childhood
sexual abuse: Taking steps to prevent childhood
sexual
abuse is an ongoing parental
responsibility.
In 80% of cases the abuser is
someone the child
knows as a trusted
or loved adult or older child who may use
threats,
bribery
or tricks
to take advantage of the child'sinnocence.
There are three stages in the Prevention
of sexual abuse. They are 1. Primary
Prevention
2. Secondary Prevention
3. Tertiary
Prevention
Primary Prevention:
It involves
preventing
the abuse from happening in the first
place. Avoid being alone in company of suspected person. Don't
wear provocative
dresses.
Do not let allow anyone to hug, pet or kiss you. Take care of the way
you sit.
When you are going to school by auto, bus or by train
keep distance
from

the

other

sex.

Secondary Prevention:
It includes
early detection
and reporting
for the purpose of stopping
the perpetrators
and minimizing
the
on

the

of perpetrators
negative
effect

child.

Tertiary
prevention:
It focuses on the treatment
of abused children
and adults
who have developed signs and symptoms of distress.
Warning signs of sexual abuse: Children
who have been sexually
abused often show
the following
signs
:o A sudden dramatic
change in behaviour
or personality.
o Recurring
nightmares.
o Regression
to early behaviour
patterns
such as bed
wetting.
o Withdrawal
from friends
and family
members.
o lmitating
adult
sexual behaviour.
o Hostile,
aggressive
behaviour.
Substance abuse: To preteens
and teens, alcohol,
tobacco and drugs may seem
like
a quick way to move into the adult world.
These substances
cause serious
problems,
and their
use leads to addiction.
Alcohol
is the most abused substance
among teenagers.
Consumption of alcohol
leads to frequent
memory loss and
hepatitis
(liver
damage).
Drug: (Fr. drogue
a dry herb) is a chemical which is taken for some illness
and

is

withdrawn

when

the

desired

effect

is

achieved.

Illegal
Drugs: Illegal
drugs are drugs used for recreation,
but it is against
the law to take them, because it is extremely
dangerous.
The side effects
are
serious
and the drugs are highly
addictive,
ruining
people's
lives.
The effects
of the drug on the addict'slife
style
can lead to a very unpleasant
death.
These drugs slowly
reduce the functioning
of nervous system and heart functions.
Opium, Heroine,
Marijuana
and Cocaine are some of the illegal
drugs. These drugs
slowly change the behaviour
of the users:
some of the behavioural
changes
are as follows:
1. Rejection
of old friends
and the acquiring
of new ones.
2.

Sudden

lack

of

interest

in

hobbies

or

extracurricular

activities.

3.

Staying away from home after
schooL.
4. Drop in grades and disinterest
in
school work.
5. Less concern with appearance.
6. Mood swings or extreme
irritability.
Prevention
of drug abuse:
1. Children
should avoid the company of drug addicts.
2.Advertisements
of drugs on public
media should be banned
3. Doctor's
advice and prescriptions
should be strictly
followed.
2.7.4.
Smoking hazards:
Cigarettes
have been deemed one of the greatest
health
hazards of the 20th century
and are now widely
regarded as the chief preventable
cause of death. Tobacco products
such as cigarettes,
cigars,
smokeless tobacco
(like
snuff and chewing tobacco)
are more dangerous.
When a cigarette
is burned,
it

is

broken

down

into

its

chemical

elements

from

which

lethal

chemical

compounds are created.
The period between puffs allows time for nicotine,
ammonia, acetone,
formaldehyde,
hydrogen cyanide and some 4000 other chemical
constituents
to become irritants,
poisons,
mutagens and more than 40 types of
carcinogens.
Some of the evil
effects
of smoking are
o Raising bad cholesterol
(Low Density
Lipid),
decreasing
good cholesterol
(High Density
Lipid)
o Blood
vessels are constricted,
damages the lining
of the arteries
making the blood
more sticky.
This increases
the risk of blood clots
and dramatically
raises the
risk

of

a heart

attack

or

stroke.

o 80% of

cancerous

deaths

are

linked

Smoking aggravates
asthma, bronchitis,
pneumonia and emphysema.
o Also the causative
agent for pepticulcers,
cataracts.
o Cigarettes
increases
the risk of infertility
in both men and women.
o Children
smokers are also far more susceptible
to asthma and ear infections.

to

of

it.

Healthy food
2.7.5.
SPROUTING:
Sprouts are a living,
enzymerich
food, natural
and low in
calories.
Their vitamin
A content will
usually
double, various
B group vitamins
will
be 5
10 times higher,
and vitamin
C will
increase
by a similar
order.
Their protein
content
becomes easily
digestible
and rich new nutrients
such as
enzymes are created.
They contain
significant
amounts of bioavailable
calcium,
iron

and

zinc.

When a dormant seed sprouts,
its starch is converted
into simple sugars and long
chain proteins
are split
into smaller,
easily
digestible
molecules.
Sprouted
beans and seeds are like
a predigested
food, one of the most enzymerich
and
nutritious
foods known. Most seeds sprout easily,
as do many legumes. Nuts are
more difficult
to sprout.
It is recommended that soaking all the nuts, legumes
and grains that we consume, which then become a wonderful,
highly
nutritious
and
essential
component of a living
food diet.
Best sprouting
results
in sunflower
seeds and mung beans. This may be a reflection
of the local
conditions
and
suppliers.
Mung beans make an excellent
sprout,
used widely
in cooking.
However,
they primarily
use the sprouts
and not the beans, and the sprouts
are often stir
fried.
Soya and kidney bean sprouts are toxic
and may be avoided.
Bean
sprouts are easy and cheap to grow at home.
1. First
remove the damaged bean seeds.
2.Soak them in a clean water overnight
or for about 12 hours.
3. Drain,
rinse and place them in a wide mouthed
bottle.
Allowing
room for the sprouts to grow.
4. Cover the jar with cotton
cloth.
5. Keep it in the dark area of your house as sunlight
makes them taste
bitter.
As soon as the bean germinate,
all the starches,
oil and other nutrients
packed into it
to nourish
the tiny plant begin to turn into vitamins,
enzymes
and other forms of proteins
mineral
and sugars. The Vitamin
C content of the
bean increases,
when it starts
sprouting.
Rinse the bean sprouts
two to four
times a day. They will
be pale green fresh and ready for eating
in two to six
days.
Cancer:

Normally body cells
grow and reproduce in an orderly
way. In contrast
cancerous
cells
multiply
rapidly.
This is due to damaged genetic
material
of the cell.
This stage is known as initiation.
It can be influenced
by external
factors
like
radiation,

viral

infections

and

certain

chemicals.

These

cancerous

cells

create

lots of problem in our metabolism
and invade to the other areas through blood
streams, where they cause secondary tumours. This stage is called
metastasis.
Cancer is ultimately
the result
of cells
that uncontrollably
grow and do not
die. Normal cells
in the body follow
an orderly
path of growth,
division
and
death. Programmed cell death is called
apoptosis,
and when this process breaks
down, cancer begins to form. Unlike
regular
cells,
cancer cells
do not
experience
programmatic
death and instead
continue
to grow and divide.
This
leads to a mass of abnormal cells
that grows out of control.
Cancer symptoms are quite varied
and depend on where the cancer is located,
where it has spread, and how big the tumour is. Some cancers can be felt
or seen
through the skin
a lump on the breast or testicle
can be an indicator
of
cancer in those locations.
Skin cancer (melanoma) is often noted by a change in
a wart or mole on the skin.
Some oral cancers present white patches inside
the
mouth or white spots on the tongue. Other cancers have symptoms that are less
physically
apparent.
Some brain tumours tend to present symptoms early in the
disease as they affect
important
cognitive
functions.
Pancreas cancers are usually
too small to cause symptoms until
they cause pain
by pushing against
nearby nerves or interfere
with liver
function
to cause a
yellowing
of the skin and eyes called
jaundice.
Symptoms also can be created as
a tumour grows and pushes against
organs and blood vessels.
For example, colon
cancers lead to symptoms such as constipation,
diarrhoea,
and changes in stool
size.
Bladder or prostate
cancers cause changes in bladder function
such
as more frequent
or infrequent
urination.
There are five broad groups that are used to classify
cancer.
1.Carcinomas
are characterized
by cells
that cover internal
and external
parts of the body
such as lung,
breast,
and colon cancer.
2. Sarcomas are characterized
by cells
that are located
in bone, cartilage,
fat,
connective
tissue,
muscle, and other supportive
tissues.

3. Lymphomas are

cancers

that

begin

in the lymph

cancers

that

begin

in the

nodes and immune system

tissues.

4.
the

Leukaemia
blood

are

bone marrow and often

accumulate

in

stream.

5. Adenomas are cancers that arise
adrenal gland, and other glandular

in the thyroid,
tissues.

the

pituitary

gland,

the

Prevention:
The following
are some of the ways to prevent diseases like
heart
attack,
cancer,
diabetes
and hypertension.
Smoking causes lung cancer.
It also
affects
mouth, throat,
oesophagus,
pharynx,
larynx
liver
etc. Smoking should be
totally
avoided.
High intake
of fruits
and vegetables
are protective
against
many forms of diseases like
heart attack,
cancer,
diabetes
and hypertension.
High intake
of beta carotene,
vitamin
C and other vitamin
containing
food should
be taken. Apart from citrus
variety
of fruits,
bean sprouts
is also an excellent
source of vitamin
C.
Try to weight,
if your obese.
Avoid pickles
and
salty
foods.
A Vegetarian
diet is typically
high in fibre,
low in
saturated
fat compared to meat eaters.