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Table of Contents
DISCLAIMER
UPDATE STATEMENT
FOREWORD
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS
CONTRIBUTORS
PEER REVIEW
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Chemical Toxicity—Oral
3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Radiation Toxicity—Inhalation
3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Radiation Toxicity—Oral
3-4 Conceptual Representation of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Model for a Hypothetical Chemical Substance
3-5 Compartment Model to Represent Particle Deposition and Time-Dependent Particle Transport in the Respiratory Tract
3-6 Reaction of Gases or Vapors at Various Levels of the Gas-Blood Interface
3-7 The Human Respiratory Tract Model: Absorption into Blood
3-8 ICRP (1993) Model of Strontium Biokinetics
3-9 Existing Information on Health Effects of Stable Strontium
3-10 Existing Information on Health Effects of Radioactive Strontium
6-1 Frequency of NPL Sites with Strontium Contamination
6-2 Frequency of NPL Sites with Strontium-90 Contamination
6-3 U.S. Daily Dietary Intake of 90Sr, 1961–1992
LIST OF TABLES
3-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Chemical Toxicity—Oral
3-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Radiation Toxicity—Inhalation
3-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Radiation Toxicity—Oral
3-4 Levels of Significant Exposure to Strontium—Radiation Toxicity—External
3-5 Genotoxicity of Stable and Radioactive Strontium In Vivo
3-6 Genotoxicity of Stable and Radioactive Strontium In Vitro
3-7 Summary of Estimates of Absorption of Ingested Strontium in Humans
3-8 Reference Respiratory Values for a General Caucasian Population at Different Levels of Activity
3-9 Reference Values of Parameters for the Compartment Model to Represent Time dependent Particle Transport from the Human Respiratory Tract
4-1 Chemical Identity of Strontium and Strontium Compounds
4-2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Strontium and Strontium Compounds
4-3 Percent Natural Occurrence and Radioactive Properties of Isotopes of Strontium
6-1 Radiostrontium Releases from Nuclear Power Plants for 1993
6-2 Selected Bioconcentration Factors for 90Sr in Aquatic, Wetland, and Terrestrial Ecosystems at the Savannah River Site
6-3 Average or Ranges of Concentration of Strontium in Earth Materials
6-4 90Sr in Drinking Water (Composites) for January–December 1995
6-5 Quarterly and Annual Deposition of 90Sr in Selected U.S. Cites for the Year 1990
6-6 Concentration of Strontium in Fruit Juices and Produce
6-7 90Sr in the Human Diets During 1982
6-8 90Sr in Pasteurized Milk in July 1997
6-9 Strontium Concentrations in Human Body Fluids and Tissues
6-10 Ongoing Studies on the Environmental Effects of Strontium
7-1 Analytical Methods for Determining Strontium in Biological Samples
7-2 Analytical Methods for Determining Strontium in Environmental Samples
8-1 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Stable Strontium
8-2 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Radioactive Strontium
8-3 Effective Dose Coefficients (e(50)) and Annual Limits on Intake (ALI) for Occupational Exposures to Radioactive Strontium Isotopes
1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT
1.1 WHAT IS STRONTIUM?
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO STRONTIUM WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO STRONTIUM?
1.4 HOW CAN STRONTIUM ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?
1.5 HOW CAN STRONTIUM AFFECT MY HEALTH?
1.6 HOW CAN STRONTIUM AFFECT CHILDREN?
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO STRONTIUM?
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO STRONTIUM?
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?
2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO STRONTIUM IN THE UNITED STATES
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS
3. HEALTH EFFECTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF STABLE STRONTIUM BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.2.1.1 Death
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects
3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects
3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects
3.2.1.7 Cancer
3.2.2 Oral Exposure
3.2.2.1 Death
3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects
3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects
3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects
3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects
3.2.2.7 Cancer
3.2.3 Dermal Exposure
3.2.3.1 Death
3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects
3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects
3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects
3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects
3.2.3.7 Cancer
3.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure
3.3 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE STRONTIUM BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
3.3.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.3.1.1 Death
3.3.1.2 Systemic Effects
3.3.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.3.1.4 Neurological Effects
3.3.1.5 Reproductive Effects
3.3.1.6 Developmental Effects
3.3.1.7 Cancer
3.3.2 Oral Exposure
3.3.2.1 Death
3.3.2.2 Systemic Effects
3.3.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.3.2.4 Neurological Effects
3.3.2.5 Reproductive Effects
3.3.2.6 Developmental Effects
3.3.2.7 Cancer
3.3.3 External Exposure
3.3.3.1 Death
3.3.3.2 Systemic Effects
3.3.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects
3.3.3.4 Neurological Effects
3.3.3.5 Reproductive Effects
3.3.3.6 Developmental Effects
3.3.3.7 Cancer
3.3.4 Other Routes of Exposure
3.4 GENOTOXICITY
3.5 TOXICOKINETICS
3.5.1 Absorption
3.5.1.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.5.1.2 Oral Exposure
3.5.1.3 Dermal Exposure
3.5.2 Distribution
3.5.2.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.5.2.2 Oral Exposure
3.5.2.3 Dermal Exposure
3.5.3 Metabolism
3.5.3.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.5.3.2 Oral Exposure
3.5.3.3 Dermal Exposure
3.5.4 Elimination and Excretion
3.5.4.1 Inhalation Exposure
3.5.4.2 Oral Exposure
3.5.4.3 Dermal Exposure
3.5.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models
3.6 MECHANISMS OF ACTION
3.6.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms
3.6.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity
3.6.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations
3.7 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS
3.8 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY
3.9 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT
3.9.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Strontium
3.9.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Strontium
3.10 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS
3.11 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE
3.12 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS
3.12.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure
3.12.2 Reducing Body Burden
3.12.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects
3.13 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE
3.13.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Strontium
3.13.2 Identification of Data Needs
3.13.3 Ongoing Studies
4. CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, and RADIOLOGICAL INFORMATION
4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY
4.2 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL
5.1 PRODUCTION
5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT
5.3 USE
5.4 DISPOSAL
6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE
6.1 OVERVIEW
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
6.2.1 Air
6.2.2 Water
6.2.3 Soil
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning
6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation
6.3.2.1 Air
6.3.2.2 Water
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil
6.3.2.4 Other Media
6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT
6.4.1 Air
6.4.2 Water
6.4.3 Sediment and Soil
6.4.4 Other Environmental Media
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES
6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE
6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs
6.8.2 Ongoing Studies
7. ANALYTICAL METHODS
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS
7.1.1 Internal Strontium Measurements
7.1.2 In Vivo and In Vitro Radiostrontium Measurements
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES
7.2.1 Field Measurements of Radiostrontium
7.2.2 Laboratory Analysis of Environmental Samples
7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE
7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs
7.3.2 Ongoing Studies
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES
9. REFERENCES
10. GLOSSARY
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS
APPENDIX B. USER'S GUIDE
APPENDIX C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS
APPENDIX D. OVERVIEW OF BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND BIOLOGY
APPENDIX E. INDEX