Our National Flag
The Indian National Flag is the symbol of the land and
people of India. Our National Flag is a tricolour panel made up
of three rectangular panels or sub-panels of equal widths. The
colour of the top panel is India saffron (Kesaria) and that of the bottom is India green.
The middle panel is white, bearing at its centre the design of the Ashoka Chakra in navy
blue colour with 24 equally spaced spokes. The Ashoka Chakra is visible on both sides
of the Flag in the centre of the white panel. The Flag is rectangular in shape with the
ratio of the length to the height (width) being 3:2.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan explained about the National Flag in the Constituent
Assembly which adopted it, “Bhagwa or the saffron colour denotes renunciation or
disinterestedness. The white in the centre is light, the path of truth to guide our conduct.
The green shows our relation to the soil, our relation to the plant life here on which all
other life depends. The Ashoka Wheel is the wheel of the law of dharma. Truth or satya,
dharma or virtue ought to be the controlling principles of those who work under this
flag. Again, the wheel denotes motion. There is life in movement. India must move and
go forward.”
If done properly, there is no restriction on the display of the National Flag by
common people, private organizations or educational institutions. Consistent with
the dignity and honour of the Flag as detailed in the Flag Code of India, anyone may
hoist/ display the National Flag on all days and occasions, ceremonial or otherwise.
Where the practice is to fly the Flag on any public building, it must be flown on
the building on all days including Sundays and holidays and, except as provided in the
Code, it shall be flown from sunrise to sunset irrespective of weather conditions. The
Flag may be flown on such a building at night also but this should be only on very
special occasions.
The Flag must not be used as a drapery in any form except in State/ Military/
Central Paramilitary Forces funerals. In such cases also the Flag must not be lowered
into the grave or burnt in the pyre. The Flag must not be draped over the hood, top,
sides or back of a vehicle, train or boat. It must not be used or stored in such a manner
as may damage or soil it. When the Flag is in a damaged or soiled condition, it must not
be cast aside or disrespectfully disposed of but be destroyed as a whole in private,
preferably by burning. The Flag must not be used as a covering for a building. Although
the Flag can be used as a costume or uniform, it should not be used as undergarments
or below the waist. It must not be embroidered or printed upon cushions, napkins,
etc. Lettering of any kind must not be put upon the Flag. It must not be used in any
form of advertisement. Showing disrespect or insult to the National Flag is a punishable
offence.
The National Flag must not be flown from a single masthead simultaneously
with any other flag. There must be separate mastheads for different flags. The flag mast
should be in white colour. When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by
Government, the National Flag is flown on the right side of the car and the Flag of the
foreign countries on the left side of the car.
In the event of the death of the President, the Vice-President or the Prime
Minister, the National Flag is half-masted throughout the country.
Over the last five decades, several people including members of the armed
forces have laid down their lives to keep the tricolour flying in its full glory. We must
salute and cherish our National Flag.

SOCIAL STUDIES
Class IX
Editors
Sri C.N. Subramanyam,
Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.
Prof. G. Omkarnath, Dept.of Economics,
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.
Prof. I.Laxmi, Dept. of History,
Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Prof. M.Kodandaram, Dept. of Political
Science, P.G. College, Sec’bad, Hyd.
Prof. K.Vijaya Babu, Dept. of History,
Kakatiya University, Warangal.
Dr. K. Narayana Reddy, Asst. Prof.
Dept.of Geography, O.U, Hyderabad.
Dr. M.V. Srinivasan, Asst. Prof.
DESS, NCERT, New Delhi.
Sri K. Suresh,
Manchi Pustakam, Hyderabad.
Sri Alex. M.George,
Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.

Prof. S. Padmaja, Dept.of Geography,
Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Dr. I.Thirumali, Senior Fellow,
ICSSR, New Delhi.
Sri Arvind Sardana, Director,
Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.
Prof. A. Satyanarayana (Retd.),
Dept. of History, Osmania University, Hyd.
Dr. K.K. Kailash, Dept. of Political Science,
HCU, Hyderabad.
Dr. C.S. Bala Chandran,
Cultural Geographer, Bangalore.
Sri A. Satyanarayana Reddy, Director,
S.C.E.R.T. , A.P., Hyderabad.
Dr. Sukanya Bose, Consultant,
NIPFP, New Delhi.
Dr. N. Chandrayudu, Asst.Prof.
Dept. of Geography, S.V.University, Tirupati.

Textbook Development Committee
Sri S. Jagannatha Reddy, Director,
S.C.E.R.T. , Telangana, Hyderabad.

Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,
Telangana Govt. Textbook Press, Hyderabad.

Sri K. Krishna Mohan Rao,
Professor,
S.C.E.R.T., Telangana, Hyderabad.

Dr. N. Upendar Reddy,
Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
S.C.E.R.T., Telangana, Hyderabad.

Published by the Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.
Respect the Law
Get the Rights

Grow by Education
Behave Humbly

i

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© Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.
First Published 2013
New Impressions 2014, 2015

All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published
and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copy right holder of this book is the Director
of School Education, Hyderabad, Telanga na.
We have used some photographs which are under
creative common licence. They are acknowledged
at later (page vii).
This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Maplitho,
Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

Free Distribution by Government of Telangana

Printed in India
at the Telangana Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Telangana.

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ii

SOCIAL STUDIES
Class IX
Writers
Dr. N. Chandrayudu, Asst.Prof.
Dept. of Geography, S.V.University, Tirupati.
Smt K. Seetha Maha Laxmi, Lecturer
Govt. Degree College, Rajamundry.
Sri Madithati Narasimha Reddy, GHM
ZPHS Peddajangampally, Y.S.R.Kadapa.
Sri K. Subramanyam, Lecturer
Govt. DIET, Kurnool.
Sri T. Ravinder, Lecturer, Govt. DIET, Warangal.
Sri K. Laxminarayana, Lecturer
Govt. DIET, Angalur, Krishna.
Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A.
ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.
Dr. B.V.N.Swamy, S.A
GHS Huzurabad, Karimnagar.
Sri Korivi Srinivasa Rao, S.A
MPUPS P.R.Pally, Tekkali, Srikakulam.
Sri. Kasam Kumaraswamy, S.A
ZPHS Dowdepally, Adilabad.
Sri P. Rathanga Pani Reddy, S.A
ZPHS Polkampally,Addakal, Mahabubnagar.
Smt. Hemakhatri, IGNIS, Hyd. (Proof reading)

Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A
GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.
Sri Undeti Ananda Kumar, S.A
ZPHS Sujatha Nagar, Khammam.
Sri P. Srinivasulu, S.A
ZPHS Haveli Ghanpur, Medak.
Sri P. Jagan Mohan Reddy, S.A
ZPHS Pidchedu,Gajwel, Medak.
Sri A. Ravinder, S.A
GHS Orus, Warangal.
Sri A.M. Srinivasa Rao, S.A
ZPHS Kolalapudi , Prakasham.
Sri T. Venkataiah, S.A
ZPHS Eguvaveedi, Chittoor.
Sri N. Subramanyam, S.A
ZPHS Tharunavoya, Nellore.
Sri T. Vishnu Murthy, S.A
UPS Mannegudem, Warangal.
Smt Bandi Maria Rani, S.A
M.P.U.P.S Chilukanagar, Rangareddy.
Sri P.V. Krishna Rao, LFL HM,
P.S. Mohalla No.16, Yellandu, Khammam.
Sri Vanguri Gangi Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kondurg, MBNR.
Sri N.C. Jagannath, GHS Kulsumpura,Hyd.

Co-ordinators
Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A
GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.
Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A
ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.
Sri. Kasam Kumaraswamy, S.A
ZPHS Dowdepally, Adilabad.
Sri Undeti Ananda Kumar, S.A
ZPHS Sujatha Nagar, Khammam.
Sri P. Jagan Mohan Reddy, S.A
ZPHS Pidchedu,Gajwel, Medak.

Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Sri S. Vinayak, C & T Dept.
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Sri Madithati Narasimha Reddy, GHM
ZPHS Peddajangampally, Y.S.R.Kadapa.
Sri K. Laxminarayana, Lecturer
Govt. DIET, Angalur, Krishna.

Illustrators

Layout & Design
Sri Kurra Suresh Babu, B.Tech.,

Sri Kurella Srinivas, GHM.
ZPHS, Kurmedu, Nalgonda.
Sri B. Kishore Kumar,
UPS, Vootkur, Nalgonda.
Sri P. Anjaneyulu, Geomapper, CESSDCS, Hyderabad

MANA Media Graphics, Hyderabad.
Sri Kannaiah Dara
S.C.E.R.T. Telangana, Hyderabad.
Smt. K. Pavani, Computer Operator,
Hyderabad.

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Letter to students
“Dear Young Friends,
Congratulations on beginning your secondary education! You are privileged to study in class
IX. A large number of children of our country are not so lucky. Nearly 50% of the children who
enroll in class I do not manage to continue their education after class VIII and drop out to take
care of their homes, fields or earn their livelihood by working for others. This is a major loss for
them and also to us for when we discuss social problems we will not be able to know about their
experiences and views. You therefore have the added responsibility of thinking on their behalf
and finding out about their viewpoints about social questions.
School education like so many aspects of modern life, open a new world of opportunities for
all of us. Yet only a few are able to benefit from them. Hence we see such poverty and hunger
amidst such wealth and riches. As youth, who are privileged to take up higher studies you need
to ask why this is so and how things can be changed so that the benefits of modern life is equally
available to all.
This book tries to explore the answers to some of these questions, how human societies in
recent times managed to achieve such great possibilities as rapid growth of riches and rights, but
at the same time failed to end inequality and exploitation.
This book is in two parts, the first part deals with Geography and Economics and the second
part deals with History and Social-Political Life. While you will be studying these subjects
systematically from class XI onwards, here you are being introduced some important topics and
methods of study of these subjects.
The chapters in this book analyse some important social issues: they provide some information
and some conclusions about them. However, please remember that no chapter can cover all
aspects or give you a complete picture. It only helps you to commence on a journey of enquiry.
You need to think for your self, read up more books in the library and internet about these
topics, discuss them and then form your own opinion. You will not gain anything by memorizing
the information or conclusions given in this book. Instead try to think about them and find more
about them.
When you seek information about any social problem, you will be engulfed with diverse kinds
of information. How can we figure out if it is of use to us or not, if it is correct or not, how to
distinguish between information which is correct and which is incorrect? This is the greatest
challenge before any scholar who takes up advanced study. First of all you need to check on the
source of the information, is it authentic, whose view point it expresses, what biases it shows etc
etc. Only then will you be able to come to any conclusion about its use for you.
Books can only tell you what others thought and did. At the end of it you need to decide for
yourself your understanding and what you want to do about the social problems you will be
studying. You have the responsibility of both understanding the society and acting to make it
better. We only hope that this book will help you in this.
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iv
iv

– Editors

About this book
This book is a part of your Social Science Curriculum and a part of various things
you would be doing to study the society around you. However, remember that it is only
one small part of that curriculum. The Social Science Curriculum requires you to analys
and share in the class room what you know. It requires you above all to ask questions –
think why things are the way they are. It also requires you and your friends to go out of
the class room to the market, to the village fields, to temples and mosques and museums
and find out various things. You will have to meet and discuss with a number of people,
farmers, shopkeepers, officials, priests and so on.
This book will introduce you to a range of problems and enable you to study them
and arrive at your own understanding of them. So, the most important thing about this
book is that it does not have answers. In fact this book is not really complete. It can only
be completed when you and your friends and teachers bring their own questions and
experiences and discuss everything threadbare in the class. You may disagree with many
things in this book - do not be afraid to say so - only give your reasons. Your friends may
disagree with you, but try to understand why they have a different view. Finally arrive at
your own answers. You may not even be sure of your answer - you may want to find out
more before you make up your mind. In that case list your questions carefully and request
your friends, teachers or elders to help you to find out.
This book will help you to study about the earth and its natural realms, about the
agriculture and industrial development as well as service activities; how people follow
the financial system and credit, how the government frames the budget and levies the
taxes so as to understand the implications on human life.
In this book you may have to study about what happened centuries ago, what cultural
changes came in Europe, about the revolutions and industrialization and the impact on
society for change, understand the impact of colonialism in various continents; you may
also have to study about democracy and its expansion, rights related to human beings
especially about women protection Acts and try to understand how far they are affecting
our present life.
As you study this book in the classroom, you will come across many questions do stop and try to answer those questions or do the activity suggested before you proceed
ahead. It is not so important to finish the lesson fast as it is to discuss the questions and
do the activities.
Many lessons will suggest projects which may take a few days to do. These projects
will enable you to develop skills of social science enquiry and analysis and presentation
- these are more important than remembering what is written in the lessons.
Please remember that you don't have to memorise what is given in the lesson, but
think about them and form your own opinion about them.

Director, SCERT,
Telangana, Hyderabad.
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USING THIS BOOK AND NOTE TO THE TEACHER
AND STUDENTS
This book is in continuation with the National and State Curriculum Frameworks which suggested
disciplinary approach to teaching needs to begin only at Secondary school level. You have
traditionally taught various disciplines of Geography, History, Civics and Economics . However
there were various overlaps between the concepts that were discussed under them.
Text book is designed with the idea that social studies teachers and students need to bring it into
the classroom and use it inside the classroom for learning. It is important to read the textbook in
classroom and conduct discussion around it.
The language of the text: Efforts have been taken to write the text of this book in child friendly
manner. However there are certain terms and jargons that will need explanation and clarification.
Text is often trying to give examples that may be suitable to the concept that is discussed. Each
chapter has central ideas, these are often provided as subheadings. In a classroom, you may be
able to cover 2 or 3 subheadings in a period roughly.
This textbook uses different style of writing. Sometimes they are fictionalised narratives like
Vasu, Arun and Shivakamini in Chapter 9. These are often fictionalised but based on facts
explanation of a scenario. Or there are passages that are in the form of case studies like in
section on Effects of industrial activities in Patancheru in Chapter 7. There are also texts in the
tables and in the form of graphs where comparative elements are put together as in the case of
Financial systems and Credit Chapter 9. Concepts are thus explained using different language
styles.
Use of in between questions and end text questions: You will note that there are questions
in between the text. Do not leave out these questions. These are integral to the teaching learning
process. These questions are of different types – some of them help you in summarising, evaluating
the passages that you may have read out. Or they are for collecting more information that is
around the concepts discussed in the previous subheading. Do not try to dictate the answers to
these questions, allow children to find the answers on their own. Allow them to have discussions
amongst each other in trying to figure out the meaning of these questions and talk about possible
answers.
There are different types of questions used in the book:
1) asking children to write their experiences; 2) compare their experiences with that of the
examples given in the text; 3) comparing two or three different situations given in the textbooks;
4) questions that ask children to give their opinion about the situation or case study (when these
opinions are asked it need not be the same for all children, allow them to express their opinion);
5) questions that are evaluating a particular situation given in the chapter.
Teacher may adopt different strategies in using these questions in the classroom. Some questions
may be written down in the note book; others may be discussed in small groups; a few may be
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vi

written as individual tasks. In all situations it is important to encourage the child to write in his
own words. Avoid instructing all children to write the answers in same style and structure.
There are certain boxes in the chapters. These are often additional information on the concepts
discussed in the chapter. It is important to discuss them in the classroom, and conduct the
activities around.
Images used in the textbooks: In traditional textbook, images in it, serve only a visual relief.
However, our purpose in using images is as significant as text itself. There may be a few
sketches like in Government Budget and Taxation. We use the images of leaders in various
political movements. In all other occasions images are as important as the text, they are useful
inexplaining the concepts or are illustrative of the ideas used in the textbooks. We have also
tried to use different styles of images: like photographs; line drawings; cartoons posters etc as
well. These are also taken from different historical points of time. Hence just as different styles
used in textbooks there is diversity in the images too.
Maps, tables and graphs: Maps in these books tell us about geographic, economic, political
and historical aspects. They are used to present the information in an interesting manner. You
will also find the use of tables and graphs. Reading tables and graphs are essential in Social
Studies. These often provide much more clarity in explaining the concepts.
Projects: There are different projects suggested in the book. It may not be possible for all
projects to be undertaken. It is important to remember we cannot teach all aspects of concepts
merely by reading textbook. Projects thus enable children to interact with members of the
society, collect new information, arrange and present them in their own manner. Making questions
for an interview, planning for a visit to the bank, or creating a presentation that could include
images, tabulated data or graphs based on the information they collected are also important in
Social Studies skills. These encourage children to work together in groups and conduct exchange
and share ideas.
We can use content related maps, tables & graphs other than text book for practice and
evaluation.
Discussions, conducting interviews, debates and projects are given in the middle of the running
lesson and after the improve your learning. To develop social consiousness, sensitivity and
positive attitude among the children is the purpose. Hence these must be taken up.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge the contributions of Sri K. Joshi State Coordinator T.S.
Human Rights Education, Dr. Ramani Atkuri Medical Practitioner Bhopal, Sri Velina Murari
Bangalore, Smt K. Bhagya Lakshmi Manchi Pustakam Hyderabad, Prof. K.K. Kailash P.U.
Chandigarh, Prof. E. Shiva Nagi Reddy Dept.of Archaeology and Museums T.S., Director
State Central Library and reference section staff T.S. and others who directly or indirectly
participated in our workshops and contributed in improving the quality of specific chapters in
the textbook. Some of the photographs used in the book are taken from flickr, wikipedia or
other internet sources, under creative commons license.

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ACADEMIC STANDARDS
Time should be spent in making sure that children comprehend the passages given in
text. In between questions are useful in this context. These questions are of different types
that would include the aspects reasoning, cause and effect, justification, mind mapping /
concept mapping, observation, analysis, thinking and imagination, reflection, interpreting

etc. The key concepts have been discussed subconceptwise in every chapter with examples
and also given in the form of keywords.
1)

Conceptual understanding: Promoting learning of basic concepts through inquiry, discussion,

2)

Reading the text (given), understanding and interpretation : Occasionally there are case

reflection giving examples through case studies interpreting, observation etc.

studies about farmers, labourers in factory, or images that are used in text which do not
directly convey the concept. Time should be given for children to grasp the main ideas,
interpret images etc.

3)

Information skills: Textbooks alone cannot cover all different aspects of social studies
methodology. For example children living in an urban area can collect information regarding
their elected representatives or children living in the rural area can collect information
about the way irrigation / tank facilities are made available in their area. These information
may not exactly match with that of the textbooks and will have to be clarified. Representing
the information that they have collected through projects are also an important ability. For
example if they collect information about a tank – they may decide to draw an illustration or
map etc along with written material. Or represent the information collected through images
or posters. Information skill includes, collection of informatic tabulation / records and
analysis.

4)

5)

Reflection on contemporary issues and questioning: Students need to be encouraged to

compare their living conditions along with that of different regions or people from different
times. There may not be a single answer to these situations of comparison. Giving reasons
for certain happening process and justification of informatic and interpretative.

Mapping skills: There are different types of maps and pictures used in the textbook.
Developing ability related to maps as abstract representation of places are important. There

are different stages of developing this ability, from creating a map of their classroom to
understanding height, distance as represented in a map. There are illustrations, posters and

photographs used in the textbook, these images often relate to the text and are not merely
for visual effect. Sometimes there are activities like write a caption or read the images that
are about architecture etc.
6)

Appreciation and Sensitivity: Our country has vast diversity in terms of language, culture,
caste, religion, gender etc. Social studies does take into consideration these different aspects
and encourages students to be sensitive to these differences.

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viii

CONTENTS
S. No

Page No

Content

1

Our Earth

1-13

2

The Natural Realms of the Earth

14-26

3

Hydrosphere

27-35

4

Atmosphere

36-50

5

Biosphere

51-58

6

Agriculture in India

59-74

7

Industries in India

75-95

8

Service Activities in India

9

Credit in the Financial System

105-117

10

Prices and Cost of Living

118-129

11

The Government Budget and Taxation

130-142

12

Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

143-159

13

Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions: 17th and 18th Centuries

160-175

14

Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions: 19th Century

176-190

15

Industrialisation and Social Change

191-202

16

Social Protest Movements

203-210

17

Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa

211-225

18

Impact of Colonialism in India

226-239

19

Expansion of Democracy

240-250

20

Democracy: An Evolving Idea

251-261

21

Human Rights and Fundamental Rights

262-274

22

Women Protection Acts

275-283

23

Disaster Management

284-292

24

Traffic Education

293-299

96-104

Revision & Annual Examinations

Paper - I
Paper - II

Syllabus Division for Summative Assessments
SA 1
SA2
1, 2, 6, 7
1-9
12, 13, 14, 19, 20
12-20

ix

SA3
1-11
12-24

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OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM
- Rabindranath Tagore

Jana gana mana adhinayaka Jaya he
Bharatha bhagya-vidhata
Punjab Sindhu Gujaratha Maratha
Dravida Utkala Banga.
Vindhya Himachala Jamuna Ganga
Uchchala Jaladhi taranga,
Tava shubha name jage
Tava shubha asisha mage
Gahe tava jaya gatha
Jana gana mangala-dayaka jaya he,
Bharatha bhagya –vidhatha,
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya jaya he

PLEDGE
- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

“India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”

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x

CHAPTER

Our Earth

1

We live on this Earth along with
millions of other animals, plants and
micro-organisms. We human beings
arrived on earth about one lakh years
ago. More than any other animal,
human beings have been trying to make
the Earth a better place to live in. We
have been constantly trying to change
ourselves and our surro-undings. In this
process, we have entered into conflict
with other inhabitants of the Earth and
amongst ourselves. But, above all, we
have tried to understand the earth and
our activities so that we can live a
better life. For long, we have looked at
the Earth as a storehouse of resources
which we can exploit and use it at will.
Fig. 1.1: Carl Sagan, a scientist pointed out that
Gradually, some of us have started
all of human history has happened on that tiny
pixel shown here inside a yellow circle which is our realising the fallacy of this viewpoint.
only home, Earth. This photo taken from the space Our reckless exploitation of the Earth
is known as “Pale Blue Dot”.
has meant the destruction of forests,
rivers, hills, fellow animals and even fellow humans. This has resulted in what many
are calling the ‘environmental crisos’ like global warming and poisoning of our
soils, water and air. Today, more than at any other time, we need to build a new
understanding of the Earth, how it works and what we do on it and what we do with
each other.
From class VI to VIII, you had studied about diverse people living in different
kinds of lands in different times, how they used the forests, soils, water and minerals
of the earth. In the following four chapters, we will study about the Earth as a large
interconnected system, We will see how the rocks, soils, minerals, water, air,
sunshine, forests, animals and humans interact with each other and change each
other constantly.
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1

Our Universe, the Sun and the Earth
For thousands of years, humans have been looking into the sky and trying to
understand the objects that shine there –the stars that remain fixed vis a vis each
other and the Sun, the Moon and the planets which keep moving across the sky.
What are these and in what ways are they related to us? How do they affect us?
Many people studied these objects very carefully, noting down all their movements
and activities happening in the sky. They tried to figure out what these objects and
how they move and work. Initially, people thought that earth was firm and stationary
and all others went round it. Since things have been like this for thousands of years,
they also thought that the earth, the stars and sun have been like this for ever and
will be like this for ever – without any change. About five hundred years ago,
scientists came up with a new understanding – that the Earth is not in the middle of
solar system, that it is actually moves around the Sun and that the sun itself is also
constantly moving and that the countless stars in the sky are actually like our sun.
During the last hundred years or so, people have even figured out that stars are
born, they grow old and even die!
Scientists have figured out that the stars are actually part of larger groups of
stars called galaxies and that there are millions of such galaxies in the universe.
Now, they are of the view that the universe itself started some 13.7 billion years
ago with a ‘Big Bang’ and that it may end several billion years later.
From this, galaxies were formed within the galaxies, stars were formed and
around many stars, planets formed and went around them. In our lives, things move
very fast, things change every moment. However, these astronomical changes take
place over thousands and even millions of years.
Today, human beings are investigating and trying to understand these very distant
and complex phenomena! To study all this, several spaceships have been sent into the
space, human beings have even landed on the moon. Spaceships have landed on the
nearby planet-Mars and some
Why do you think are the people today curious to
have even gone beyond the
know about the secrets of distant stars and galaxies
end of our Solar System from
and the beginning of the universe?
the earth.
Initially people thought that the earth was in the
In short, the Sun and the
centre of the universe and human beings the most
Earth are a part of a much,
important creation. What difference does it make
much larger universe which
to us to know that we are a small insignificant speck
is constantly moving and
in this vast universe?
changing! The earth and the
life on it are products of
these changes and are
influenced by them!!
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Social Studies

Read about the Solar system and the planets that go
around the Sun in Chapter X ‘Stars and the Solar
System’ of Class VIII Science textbook for more
details.
Our Earth

Earth as a Planetary Body

A

B

C
Fig. 1.2: Earth’s orbit

Like all planets in our solar system, Earth
rotates on its own axis and goes around the Sun
in a definite orbit. The orbit is the path of the
Earth around the Sun. This orbit is on a uniform
plane which is called the plane of the orbit. Look
at these pictures of the Earth, Sun and the orbit.
Which one do you think is the correct picture?
A. A circular path
B. An elongated oval path
C. A scaled oval path ( For example Sun in
the middle and 1.4 cm on one side and 1.5 cm
on the other side)
Actually, the Earth's orbit is nearly circular
(as in figure C), and the difference between the
Earth's farthest point (about 152 million km)
from the Sun and its closest point (147 million
km) is very small. Earth travels around the sun
at a speed of 1,07,200 kilometres per hour! At
this speed, it takes 365¼ days to complete one
revolution. We call this a ‘year.’ You have studied
in class VIII about the energy received by
different parts of the Earth from the Sun and how
this movement of the Earth around the Sun
causes the seasons like winter and summer.

Tick the factors which cause the formation of
seasons on the earth:
- Daily rotation of the earth on its axis.
- Monthly movement of the Moon around the
Earth.
- Rotation of the Sun on its axis.
- Revolution of the Earth around the Sun.
- Tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation to its orbital plane.
- Spherical shape of the Earth.
- Earth’s distance from the Sun during the annual
revolution.

The Word Earth
Greek word “eorthe”
meaning ‘ground, soil, dry
land.’
(Dictionary
Online.com)
Indian languages have
multiple words for ‘earth.’
Sanskrit terms include
bhoomi, pruthvi, dharani,
avani etc. Many Indian
languages use variations of
these Sanskrit words.

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The Evolution of the Earth
Scientists are still debating about how our Earth was formed. Most scientists
are of the view that Earth began to form around four and a half billion years ago.
The Earth has reached its present form through several phases. It began as a ball of
swirling dust and clouds, and passed through a molten stage. At that time, the Earth
was very hot and was constantly bombarded by massive rocks and other materials
from the space. In this way, the size of the Earth grew. The Earth was so hot that it
was molten (in hot liquid form). If you boil a thick soup containing many substances,
you may observe that the heavier particles tend to go to the bottom and lighter
particles come to the top. These lighter particles cool at the top and form a layer
of crust (like the cream of milk). Similarly, while heavier substances formed the
part of the molten core, lighter substances rose to the surface and cooled. Slowly,
an upper crust of lighter and cooler materials formed covering the molten interior.
As the Earth's interior continued to cool, it contracted and the outer crust
wrinkled, forming ridges (mountains) and basins (low areas which became oceans
later).
The atmosphere of the Earth consisted of different kinds of gases including
water vapours. Most of these gases were such that life as we know it today could
not have survived on it. It didn’t have oxygen
Do you think the Earth was created
which is necessary for us. It took a long time
suddenly or do you think it was
for the air we breath to develop.
formed by long drawn and complex
The rain filled the great basins on the
processes?
Earth's crust with water. Thus, the oceans
Some people believe that our being
were formed.
on this earth is the result of a series
For perhaps one half of the long span of
of fortuitous accidents – it is quite
Earth's history, the planet Earth remained
possible that there may not have been
barren and lifeless. Then, life appeared in
any life on the earth. Do you agree?
the oceans. It slowly evolved into diverse
Give your reasons.
plants and animals including human beings
over millions of years.

Internal Structure of the Earth
Let us look at the internal structure of the Earth we live on. We can see the
continuity from the early days of the formation of the earth as we try to look deep
inside the Earth! It took us years of scientific investigation and analysis of data to
form an understanding of the interior of the Earth. The main reason for this is that
even the deepest mines we have dug do not go beyond a few kilometres under the
surface while the radius or the distance to the centre of the earth is over 6000
kilometres!
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Social Studies

Our Earth

The earth is made up
of three main layers :
1. Crust
2. Mantle

1
Crust
2
Mantle

3.a
Outer
Core

3.b
Inner
Core

3. Core
1. Crust: We live
on the outer part of the
earth which is called the
crust. You saw in the last
section how this layer
was formed. This layer
goes up to a depth of 100
kms. The crust mostly
consists of various kinds
of rocks.

2. Mantle: It exists at
the depths from 100 kms
to 2,900 kms. The upper part of the mantle is a pliable layer over which the crust
floats. This consists mainly of chemicals called silicates.
Fig. 1.3: The interior of the earth.

3. Core: It exists at the depths from 2,900 kms to 6,376 kms. It is composed of
dense and heavy substances like iron and nickel. It can be divided into two sub layers.
Outer Core: 2,900 to 5,100 kms composed of liquid metallic material like
nickel and iron.
Inner Core: The solid inner core (5,100 – 6,376 kms) of the earth is made up
of Iron compounds and heavy substances like gold.
Interestingly, matter from deep inside the mantle shoots up through volcanoes
and fissures on ocean floors and cools down to form the earth’s crust. In many
regions on the earth, part of the earth’s crust enters into the mantle and once again
becomes molten. This constant process of formation and destruction of the crust
explains the fact that our Earth is still very active. The crust on which we live is still
being changed by earthquakes, volcanoes,
subduction of land and rise of mountains due
Do you know?
to processes happening deep down inside the
The crust forms only 1% of the volume earth.
of the earth, 16% consists of the mantle
We cannot hope to travel to the
and 83% makes the core.
mantle to study it. But we can study
If we assume that the size of the earth is
substances from the mantle. Can
equal to the size of an egg, the thickness
you tell what these substances would
of the crust is just about the thickness of
the shell of an egg.
be and how we can get them?
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Movements of the Earth’s crust

Fig. 1.4: Stages of
continental drift

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Social Studies

The shapes and positions of the continents may seem
fixed at the time-scale of human experience. However,
when you look at how old Earth is, continents have
moved, collided, merged and then been torn apart
again. Mountains have risen and been razed to the
ground, oceans have formed and dried up, valleys have
been carved and so on, during the course of earth’s
eventful history.
In the early 20th century, a German
meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred
Wagener introduced the theory of
continental drift to describe and partially
explain the present arrangement of
continents and ocean basins. He
postulated a massive super
continent, which he called
Pangaea (Greek for "whole
land"), as having existed 220
million years ago and then
breaking apart into several
large sections. He
suggested that these
sections moved
away from each
other. Over millions
of years, some
continents collided
with others. They are
still moving around.
Pangaea is a
hypothetical continent from which
present continents
origi nated by the
drift of Mesozoic era
to the present.
Wagener hypothesised that the
Our Earth

supercontinent of Pangaea broke up to form:
1. Laurensia (present North America, Greenland, and all of Eurasia north of
Indian subcontinent) and
2. Gondwana-land (present South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Arabia,
Malaysia, East Indies, Australia and
Look carefully at the map of the Antarctica).
world, do you find some continents
These two blocks were separated by a
looking as if they are two pieces of long shallow inland sea called the Tethys Sea.
a jigsaw puzzle? Name those
It took millions of years for the
continents.
continents to reach the present shapes and
In which direction is Australia positions on the globe. Even today, many of
moved?
the continents are moving very slowly, pushing
each other – we will read about this in greater
In which direction is India moved?
detail in the next chapter.

The Earth’s Grid System
So far, we read about the process of formation of the Earth and its internal
structure. Now, we will see how it is shown on maps and globes.

Using an atlas to find latitude and longitude of places
You can find the latitude information in a well-produced atlas or online using
Google Earth. Here is one example of how to find the latitude and longitude
information at the end of the atlas where places are listed alphabetically, similar to
the way words are listed in a dictionary.
Example: Find the latitude and longitude information for Kobe.
Find the place name ‘Kobe’ in the list. Next to that, you will find information
about that place. This is a typical atlas listing:
Place
name

Country
name

Kobe

Japan

(60)

Latitude

Longitude

34041'N

135012'E

Page number (The school atlas, survey of
India)
The atlas you use may present the information slightly differently, but these
elements will be there.
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7

Now, find the latitude and longitude values for the other places in the list of
earthquake-prone places. Locate them on a world map. This will also help you to
understand the Pacific Ring of Fire and its earthquake-prone places.
On a globe, a network of latitudes and longitudes is drawn. This is called the
'Grid'. With the help of the grid, we can locate places and learn much about them –
how hot or cold it would be there, in which direction should we go to reach it, and
what time it would be there at any moment.
In earlier classes we have studied about hemisphere. Let us revise it in the
image below.

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere

Western hemisphere

Eastern hemisphere

With the help of the above maps complete the following table.
Hemisphere
Northeren hemisphere
Western hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
Eastern hemisphere

Continents

Latitudes
The horizontal circle that goes round the Earth exactly in the middle, at equal distance
from the north and south poles is called the ‘equator’, because it divides earth into (two)
equal parts. This is the circle designated as 0° latitude. Following the way angles are
designated in geometry, latitudes are expressed in degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds ('').
In many atlases, you will not find the minutes and seconds. Look at the fig.1.5.
From the equator, going towards the poles are a series of parallel circles. Each circle
is called a latitude. ‘Latitude’ comes to us from the Latin word ‘latitudo’ meaning ‘width’.
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Social Studies

Our Earth

Latitude values range from 0° (equator) to 90°North (the North Pole) and 90°South
(the South Pole). There is no latitude less than 0° nor greater than 90°. Every
latitude must be designated with direction – N for ‘north’ or S for ‘south.’For the
equator, there is no north or south designation.

Fig. 1.5: Latitudes

Some latitudes are given special names. These are related to the patterns of
sunlight falling on Earth that you would have studied when you learned about the
seasons and Earth’s revolution around the sun.
Equator is the largest among all the latitudes. All other latitudes on either side
gradually become smaller towards poles. At the poles, the 90°N and 90°S are not
circles at all! They are just points.
That half of Earth between the equator and north pole is called the northern
hemisphere – ‘hemi’ means half, hemisphere means half a sphere. The half that is
between the equator and the south pole is called the southern hemisphere. Counting
from one pole to the other, there are 180 main latitudes (not counting the equator).

Longitudes
Latin gives us the word ‘longitudo’ meaning length, from which we get longitude.
Longitudes are not full circles. They are semi-circles connecting pole to pole.
Every longitude cuts across every latitude.
The longitude that passes through the astronomical observatory at Greenwich,
England is called the 0° meridian, Prime meridian, or Greenwich meridian.
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or

‘Greenwich’, though it is spelled that way,
is pronounced GREN-ich, with accent on
GREN.
Several countries tried to fix a longitude
that passes through their own territory as the
0° longitude. However, England decided that
the Greenwich meridian will be the 0°
longitude. They ruled a large part of the
world at that time. So, everyone else ended
up following their system.
There are 360 longitudes. We organize
the main longitudes into two groups: 0° to
180° going east which are the east
longitudes, and 0° to 180° going west which
are the west longitudes. 0° and 180°
longitudes do not have direction markers.
Other longitudes have direction markers; for
example: 28°E for 28° East longitude,
127°W for 127° West longitude, and so on.
Each degree of longitude, just like a latitude,
can also be divided into minutes (') and
seconds ('').
The longitude (180°) directly opposite
to 0° longitude is called the anti-meridian
(anti, means opposite to).The east
longitudes form the eastern hemisphere and
the west longtitudes form the western
hemisphere.
After all this, remember: latitudes and
longitudes are imaginary lines!

Fig. 1.6: Longitudes

Other names

Longitudes and the question of time Latitudes are also called ‘parallels’ because
It takes 4 minutes for the sun’s position
to move 1° of longitude. This means that
the time is different for each degree of
longitude. Here is an example: When the
sun is directly overhead at 10°E longitude,
the local time is 12:00 (noon). But it is
10

Social Studies

they are parallel to each other! Simple!
Longitudes are also called ‘meridians.’ We
get meridian from the Latin meridianus
meaning noon, that is when the Sun is
directly overhead (noon) at a given
longitude. So, longtitudes are related to
time.
Our Earth

11:56 am (ante meridiem) at 9°E and 12:04 pm (post meridiem) at 11°E. Obviously,
this can cause a lot of confusion.
Therefore, the world is divided into 24 time zones starting from the Greenwich
meridian, going east and west. The width of each time zone is 15° of longitude.
This means that the difference between one time zone and the next is 1 hour (15°
of longitude x 4 minutes per ° longitude = 60 minutes). As you go east from
Greenwich meridian, you add time; as you go west of the Greenwich meridian, you
subtract time.
When it is noon (12:00 in the day) on Monday at 0° longitude, it is midnight
(12:00 night) at the opposite longitude (the anti-meridian). Just to the west of
180°, the Tuesday is just beginning, while to its east Monday is just ending.
Notice that if you follow the
calculated time zone boundaries, some
Time and travel
You know that the earth rotates on its axis. countries would have more than one time
And longitudes are imaginary lines we have zone with less than one hour division; for
made. Hence there is a difference in the time example, India would have two half-hour
as you travel from east to west or west to time zones. That means, the time between
east. When you are travelling West to East western and eastern parts of India would
you gain time of 4 minutes as you cross every be different by half hour, with the farlongitude. But if you are travelling from East flung northeast, even more different. This
to West you lose 4 minutes as you cross is considered too complicated to be
every longitude. These are referred as EGA useful.
and WLS (EGA - East Gain Add, WLS - West
In such situations, some countries
Lost Subtract).
choose the time along one of the
meridians that pass through their territory
and follow the time of that meridian for the whole country. This time is called
standard time. For India, it is Indian Standard Time (IST), for Pakistan it is Pakistan
Standard Time, and so on.
The advantage of this is that in India, for example, wherever you are, it is the
same time. In countries which span a large number of longitudes, keeping time is
more complex. They may divide their country into more convenient time zones,
usually with one hour difference between one time zone and the next.

Do you know?
To avoid confusion of time from one place to the other, 82O 30’ Eastern longitude
is taken as standard Meridian of India and serves as the Indian Standard Time
(IST). The exact difference between Greenwich and IST is 5½ hours.

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Using your atlas, find out how many standard time zones do these countries
have: USA, Australia, Russia, Japan, Zimbabwe, and Chile.
Swathi works for a call centre in Hyderabad. Her clients are in the USA. She
answers clients’ questions about the computer problems. She always works
during the night. Why is this? Use geography to find out!
Tease your brain!
When it is 12 noon in Greenwich (0°), what is the local time at:
(a) Mumbai (73° E)

(b) Chicago (87°30' W) (c) Sydney (151° E)

Key words
1. Big bang
4. Prime meridian

2. Grid
5. Time zones

3. Gondwana
6. Standard time.

Improve your learning
1. Look at the map of India in an Atlas and identify latitude and longitude for the following
places: (AS5)
Kanyakumari _______ and ______
Imphal _______ and ___________
Jaisalmer ____________ and ________
Pune _____________ and _____________
Patna _____________ and ________________
2. Identify the words that match with Latitude and Longitude (parallel lines, vertical
lines, horizontal lines) (AS1)
3. Look at the world map of time zones on the next page. (AS5)
a) If you travel from New Delhi to Paris, which time zone are you moving to? ______
b) If you are travelling from Hyderabad to Tokyo, which time zone are you
moving to ? __________.
4. Why is it difficult to study the formation of the earth and its structure? (AS1)
5. Read the paragraph under the heading “ Internal structure of the earth” and answer the
question. (AS2)
How can you say that the earth is still very active?
6. What is a grid and how does it help us ? (AS1)
7. Differentiate between a) Local and Standard time (b) Equator and Prime meridian(AS1)
8. If every state follows its local time then what problems would rise? (AS4)
9. With the help of your teachers, find out the standard meridian of the given
countries.(AS5)
1. Nepal 2. Pakistan 3. Bangladesh 4. England 5. Malasiya 6. Japan
10. Make a thought provoking poster on earth’s protection. (AS6)
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Social Studies

Our Earth

World - Time Zones

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CHAPTER

2

The Natural Realms of the Earth

People who study the Earth – the Earth Scientists – usually talk of four natural
realms on the Earth. Realms are areas which have some common features. These
are 1. Lithosphere, 2. Hydrosphere, 3. Atmosphere and 4. Biosphere.
You have read much about many of these in the earlier classes but in this chapter,
we will see some broad features of these spheres or realms, and how they are
interrelated and also how human beings interact with them.
1. Lithosphere: It is the solid crust or the hard top part of the Earth. It is
made up of rocks and minerals and covered with a thick layer of soil. (In Greek
‘Litho’ means stone or rock and ‘sphaira’ means sphere or ball.) It is not a smooth
surface as you see on the globe, but has high mountains, plateaus or high lands, low
plains, deep valleys and very deep basins which are filled with water (oceans). Many
of these features are shaped by wind and water. Portions of this crust, in the form
of dust etc., are mingled with the air too. When the lithosphere heats up due to
sunrays or cools down, it influences the air and water too. We and most other
living beings live on this realm. We use the rocks and soils and other things found
on this hard crust, in many ways.
2. Hydrosphere: The realm of water
is called Hydrosphere. (It comes from the
Greek word ‘hudor’ meaning water.) Some
part of the water is found deep down under
the earth among rocks (ground water or
mineral water). It comprises of the various
sources of water and different types of
water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas,
oceans etc.
3. Atmosphere: The thin layer of air
that surrounds the earth is Atmosphere (The
Greek word ‘atmos’ means vapour). It
consists of a large number of gases
including oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, water vapour etc and dust particles.

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Social Studies

You have read about mining of
minerals like baryte or coal. In what
ways do you think does mining
affects the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere?
Human beings consume a lot of
medicines like anti biotics to cure
sickness. How do you think does it
affect the lithosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere?
You may have noticed that many of
the ‘scientific’ terms use are Greek
words. Why do you think do they
use Greek words? Discuss with
your teacher.
The Natural Realms of the Earth

4. Biosphere: The realm of life including bacteria which live high up in the
atmosphere or in deep oceans constitutes the Biosphere. (From the Greek word,
‘bios’ means life.) As you may have noted above, life needs the presence of all the
three realms – land, water and air.
Now you can realise that these ‘realms’ are deeply interrelated and influence
each other. We will study about the first realm Lithosphere in greater detail. The
remaining will be studied in the next chapters.

Lithosphere
What kinds of questions do you think would be answered in this section? Tick
them in the list given below:
• How do volcanoes erupt and earthquakes occur?
• How does it rain ?
• Why are there mountains ? • Why are there valleys and gorges along rivers?
• How do the winds blow ? • How are deltas formed ?

Landforms
Lithosphere deals with the land we live upon. As you saw in the last chapter, the
crust of the earth is uneven, the very low basins are now filled with oceans and then
there are the continents. These are known as ‘first order’ landforms or the primary
division of the earth’s crust into oceans and continents.
Fill up this empty map of the world by naming the continents and colouring them
brown and naming the major oceans and colouring them blue.

Map 1: World Map - Continents and Oceans

The surface of the continents is not even – they have plain low lands, plateaus
and high mountains. These are also, in a way, a result of the internal processes of
the earth . These landforms like mountains, plains and plateaus are called ‘Second
Order landforms’.
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The Jigsaw Puzzle and the Moving Plates!
In the previous chapter, we saw how many continents look like pieces of jigsaw
puzzle (Fig. 1.4); how scientists thought that, in the beginning, probably all continents
were held together and how they broke up and gradually drifted and came to their
present places. After years of careful study, geologists have concluded that all the
continents and even the oceans are actually situated on massive base of rocks called
‘plates’. There are about seven major plates on the Earth
and several minor ones. (The major plates are African,
Tectonics comes from the
North American, South American, Indo Australian,
Greek word – ‘tekton’ meaning
Antarctic, Eurasian and Pacific Plates. Among the minor
carpenter or builder. It is
plates are the Nazca and Arabian plates). What is special
related to the Sanskrit word
about these ‘plates’? These plates actually ‘float’ on the
‘takshan’ again meaning
mantle. They are constantly being pushed and therefore
carpenter.
keep moving slowly. They move so slowly that we can’t
feel the movement. As a result of this movement, one plate pushes another
neighbouring plate. The region where the two plates meet and push each other, a
lot of pressure is exerted by each of them on the other. One plate is pushed under
into the mantle while the other plate is pushed up to form a chain of mountains.
This movement of plates is called ‘plate tectonics’. This process causes earthquakes
etc. Now, why are these plates being ‘pushed’? Who pushes them?





















Map 2: Map of World plates

Sea floor spreading: Geologists studying the crust under the sea have
discovered that under some oceans like the Pacific Ocean, there are mid ocean
ridges or ranges. They are formed by the lava rising up from the mantle. The
eruptions on the ridge create new ocean floor made of basalt rocks, which then
spreads laterally from the ridge. Thus, the mid-ocean ridges contain the newest
crust formed on the planet. This fresh crust is being slowly pulled away from the
ridge widening the ocean basin. This leads to what is called ‘sea-floor spreading’.
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Social Studies

The Natural Realms of the Earth

warping, stretching of continent

Stage-1 : Continental cracks due to pressure of
conventional currents
formation of rift valley

Stage-2 :The cracked portion of the crust
collapses to form the rift valley or depression

ancient ocean

mid-ocean ridge ß
Stage-3 : Oceans takes the place of
depression, still the magma keeps rising to
form the cracks or fault
older ocean

Stage-4 Ocean at present

Fig. 2.1: Sea floor spreading

Drama at the margins:
The margins of the plates or the
boundaries where the plates
meet are the sites of highest
geologic activity. We saw how
new crust is formed leading to
sea-floor spreading along the
mid ocean ridges. Similarly, in
other margins of the plates
where one plate meets another,
often the incoming plate dips
under the stable plate. In fact,
the incoming plate actually
goes into the mantle of the
earth and becomes molten due
to the heat of the mantle. The
plate thus going under into the
mantle actually pulls the rest of
the plate with it. This, in turn,
pulls the newly formed sea
floor near the ocean ridges.
For example, the Indian plate
(on which the Deccan plateau
of south India ‘rides’) pushes
the Eurasian plate and goes
under it just where the
Himalaya mountains are. Just
imagine – one day in very
distant future the land you are
standing upon will go under the
Himalayas and join the molten
mantle! In fact, the Himalaya

Locate the Himalayas, Andes, and Rockies mountains. Why were they formed
in those locations? Suggest reasons.
Are all rocks on the earth formed in the mid-ocean ridges?
Geologists have found fossils of sea animals on the Himalayas. Some of these
are actually worshipped in many homes as ‘salagramas’. How do you think are
these fossils there on the Himalayas?
Why do you think we don’t feel any of these mighty changes taking place on the earth? Is
it because they don’t affect us? Do you think these changes affect us at all?
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17

mountains were formed by this process of the Indian plate pushing into the Eurasian
plate (just as if you spread a sheet of cloth on a table and push it from one side it
will fold and form mountain like formations). Many of the plate boundaries are
also charecterised by volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. They are the most
earthquake prone and volcano prone zones.

Slow Movements and Sudden Movements
In the above section, we saw two kinds of changes in the Lithosphere - first,
the very slow movements leading to the formation of the crust, movement of the
continental plates and their eventual return to the Mantle. Second, the sudden and
dramatic eruption of volcanoes and earthquakes. The sudden movements can be
destructive and cause much damage. At the same time, they also lead to changes in
landforms.
Volcanoes: See the figure
of a volcano. Volcanoes are
Volcanic bombs
Lava
Layers of lava and
places on the earth’s surface
ash from past
Central vent
where molten material from the
eruptions
mantle erupts on the Earth’s
Side vent
surface. This molten material is
also accompanied by steam,
smoke and various forms of
ust
gases from the depths of the
’ s Cr
arths
E
earth. The smoke, ash and dust
Magma
spreads out in the atmosphere
chamber
while the molten materials cool
and form hard rocks called
‘Igneous rocks’.
Fig. 2.2: Structure of the Volcano
Some part of the lava may
not reach the surface and may
cool under the surface and become rocks. These are called ‘intrusive landforms’.
They are usually covered with older rocks and are exposed sometimes due to
Important volcanoes in the
world

Fig. 2.3: Stromboli Volcano (most active volcano in the
world or light house of The Mediterranean sea)
18

Social Studies

Stromboli
- Sicily
Mt Pelee
- West Indies
Mount Vesuvius - Italy
Fujiyama
- Japan
Cotopaxi
- Equador
Mayon
- Philippines
Barren, Narcondam - India
Kilimanjaro - Tanzania
The Natural Realms of the Earth

erosion of the covering rocks. A part of the lava which pours on the surface of the
earth forms the ‘extrusive landforms’. Not all of them come from volcanoes –
some of them are poured out of fissures on the earth’s surface and spread all around
Write an imaginary description of them. Such flows of lava, for example, occurred
the damages that occur due to many times on the Deccan leading to the
formation of the extensive lava plateau.
Volcanic eruption in an area.














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External processes
We saw how rocks and mountains rise up due to the internal processes. External
forces like water and air are working vigorously to wear away the surface and the
interaction of these constructive and destructive forces gives rise to the great
diversity of present day landforms. These external processes, on one hand, wear
away the surface of the rocks and mountains, then they transport the worn out
particles and deposit them in low lands and basins. The process of wearing away
and deposition causes a general leveling of the surface.
This shaping of the landforms by wind and water is called ‘Third Order
Landforms’ by geographers. These land forms include features like carved
mountains, valleys, deltas, sand dunes etc. Processes like weathering, erosion,
transportation and deposition are largely responsible for these landforms.
Free distribution by T.S. Government

19

It is known as denudation process. Denudation is a continuous process. The
lowlands what we see today were once mountains and plateaus. Landforms
continuously keep changing due to denudation activities. But these changes occur
very slowly. The structure of mountains, plateaus and plains keep on changing through
a process known as erosion cycle or geomorphic cycle.

How air and water transform the surface of the Earth?
Rocks were formed out of the molten material coming from the mantle of the
Earth. These rocks, over millions of years, have been shaped into valleys and plains
of loose soil, river valleys cut into mountains and plateaus etc. Now, how did this
happen?
Actually, the hard primary rocks are broken into smaller pieces. These smaller
pieces are cut off from the parent rock and carried lower down to other places and
deposited there. This process is formally defined as follows:
i) Weathering : Weathering is a process by which the gradual disintegration of
rocks by atmospheric forces or weather forces. The rocks, when exposed to heat,
expand and contract when they cool down. This happens every day during day and
night and year after year in summer and winter seasons. As surface rock contracts
and expands and contracts again, it gradually becomes brittle and begins to break
down. Water and moisture in the air also help this process. Water reacts with the
chemicals of the rocks and further weakens the rock. These processes by which the
rocks are weakened and broken are called ‘weathering’. Look at a large cracked
rock and you will find that the colour of the internal core of the rock is different
from the outer layer – the colour of the outer layer changes due to this process of
weathering. You will find it easier to chip small
Why do you think are the rocks
pieces of rock from the outer layer rather than
harder inside than outside?
from the core of the rock.
ii) Erosion: Flowing water and wind have great power and can slowly wear away
or cut away the rocks and soil cover in higher places. Water acts in many ways, as
rain, river, flowing ground water, sea waves, glaciers etc. Wind too takes many forms
like storms, gusts, steady winds etc. The active wearing away of the earth’s surface
by these moving agents is called erosion.
iii) Transportation: The eroded material, in the form of small rocks, gravel,
mud, fine soil etc. carried by winds and water, is called transportation. Rivers and
winds and even waves cut the soil and rocks from one place and take them to distant
places – sometimes hundreds of kilometers.
iv) Deposition: When the rivers and winds slow down, they do not have the
force to carry the material any more and they dump them. These dumped debris help
to form plains and river basins. Much of it is actually transported by rivers to the
sea, where layer after layer of these deposits accumulate at the bottom and over
time, get transformed into ‘sedimentary rocks’.
20

Social Studies

The Natural Realms of the Earth

All four aspects of this process are taking place simultaneously in different
parts of the world at different rates, depending on the nature of the slope, the structure
of the rocks, the local climate and interference by humans.

Work of Water
Can you recount the course of a river
from its source to its end – and guess how it
will erode, transport and deposit rock
materials?
The work of a river begins from its very
source, in the high mountains. The flow of a
river is very swift as it descends the steep
slopes and it exerts a great force in cutting
the mountain vertically. As a result, a deep
valley develops, narrow at the bottom and
wide at the top. This is usually called a V
Fig. 2.4: V Shaped valley
shaped valley. In this stage, water has such
force that it can move even very heavy and hard rocks.
Fig. 2.5: Grand Canyon




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Gorges are suitable for construction of
dams – can you think of the reasons for
this?
In some cases, where the rocks are very hard, the river cuts a very narrow valley,
the sides are so steep that ‘Gorges’ are formed. The Byson gorge in A.P. on the
Godavari, Indus Gorge in Kashmir are examples of this. Another important erosion
form is Canyon. A Canyon is characterized
by steep side slopes and may be as deep as a
gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at
its top as well as its bottom. In contrast, a
canyon is wider at its top than at the bottom.
The water falls are numerous in the
mountain areas where changes of slope are
more abrupt. The water falls with great force
and digs out the rock beneath to form a
‘plunge pool’.
Fig. 2.6: Angel waterfall
Free distribution by T.S. Government

21

As the river enters the plain, the slope is
gentle and the river also slows down. Now, it
does not have the force to carry heavy particles
and deposits them on its banks or on its bed.
Sometimes, when the river is flooded, it has
greater force and cuts the soil (called silt) and
when it is not in flood it deposits silt. A layer of
sediment is thus deposited during each flood
gradually building up a fertile flood plain. This
is how vast flood plains like the Ganga Plain or
the Krishna-Godavari plains were made. When
the flood water comes again, the river bed may
have become too high as a result of the
deposition. Then it changes its course and cuts
new path. This results in the river constantly
changing is course in a plain. In its flood plain,
the river often forms meanders – gentle turns
like a snake (See fig. 2.8). Due to deposition
along the sides of the meander, the ends of
meander loop comes closer and closer. In due
course of time, the meander loop cuts off from
the river and forms a cut off lake which is called
ox-bow lake.

How are the waterfalls are
useful? Explain.
Collect information about the
waterfalls in our state.
Collect some of the pictures of
waterfalls.



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Oxbow lakes

Fig. 2.7: Formation of flood plain

Fig. 2.8: Meanders

When a river reaches the sea, the fine material which has not yet dropped is
deposited at its mouth forming a delta. The word Delta is originated from the
Greek alphabet delta (∆).
22

Social Studies

The Natural Realms of the Earth

Compare the action of the river in the mountains and in the plains. In what ways are
they similar and different?
Why is a flood plain more suited to human habitation compared to mountains?
What are the dangers of living on the flood plains?
Recall the life of people living in the hills or flood plain that you may have read of.

Work of Glaciers





















In very cold regions like the Himalayas or
the Alps, it snows heavily – they get snow fall
instead of rainfall. This snow accumulates and
hardens into ice. As it accumulates, it flows
slowly down till it reaches warm area where
the ice melts and a small river starts. This is
how the river Ganga is formed from the
Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas. Slow
movement of a mass of ice (a river of ice) is called a Glacier. The movement of
glacier is very slow unlike water flow. The movement would be a few centimeters
a day or even less or more. Glaciers basically move because of the force of gravity.
A glacier erodes through a process called ‘plucking’, in which it lifts pieces of
rock and transports them. These pieces of rock and moving ice together act like a
sandpaper on the surface of the rock over which they flow. Just as a sandpaper
removes small particles of the wood, the glacier acts as an abrasive and erodes the
bed rock. Through this dual process of
Fig. 2.9: Glacier
plucking and abrasion, glaciers create a U
shaped valley.
As the glacier melts and becomes water,
it does not have the force to carry the large
rocks which it leaves behind in the form of
huge rugged boulders. Smaller particles and
pebbles are left on the bed of the glacier. The
glacier brings small pebbles, cobbles, sand
etc. with it. All these debris, known as till,
are acquired by the glacier from mountainous
slopes, side valley, floors etc. The till which
cannot be carried by a glacier is deposited
around various parts of the glacier. The
deposition of this till is called moraines.
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Melting of glacier
Free distribution by T.S. Government

23

Work of waves

Sea cave

The erosion and deposition by the sea waves
gives rise to coastal landforms. As sea waves
continuously strike at the rocks, cracks develop
in them over time. Gradually, hollow caves are
formed on the rocks. As these cavities become
bigger and bigger, only the roof of the caves
remain, and form ‘Sea Arches’. Further, erosion
breaks the roof and only walls are left. These
walls like features are called stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost
vertically above sea water is called Sea cliff.
When sea cliffs weather further, they form
rugged capes and bays. A cape is head land
cutting out into the sea. A bay is wide mouthed
recess in the line of the coast. The sea waves
deposit sediments along the shores forming
beaches etc.

Sea Arch

Sea cliff

Stacks

Fig. 2.10: Coastal landforms

Work of wind
In the previous section, we read about the changes caused by water on the
lithosphere. In this section, we shall read about the changes in the atmosphere –
particularly the movement of the winds. Wind is a dominant agent in the hot deserts.
About 1/5th of the world’s land is made up of deserts. Some are rocky, others are
stony whereas others are sandy. Strong winds carry sand and fine soil which strike
the large rocks. These too act as abrasive sandpaper and erode the hard rocks. The
wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in
the desert.
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Fig. 2.12: Inselberg
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24

Social Studies





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Mushroom rock

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The Natural Realms of the Earth

Sand Dunes: Due to weathering and persistent wind action, there is a large
accumulation of fine sand in many deserts. These form ‘sand dunes’. These are
unstable hills of sand which move with strong winds. They form a number of
shapes as they move and settle down.
The fine dust blown beyond the desert limit is deposited on neighbouring
lands. Usually, it is yellow in colour and is very fertile. This soil is called ‘Loess’.
Loess is, in fact, fine loam, rich in lime, very coherent and extremely porous.
The plains formed by the deposition of loess are called Loess Plains.

Fig. 2.13: Various types of sand dunes in Sahara desert

Compare the Loess Plains with a Delta. What
similarities and differences do you see between
them?

Action of Vegetation and Human beings
In this section, we shall briefly examine the impact of biosphere on
Lithosphere. In what ways do you think does vegetation – trees, plants and grass,
affect rocks? They contribute to the weathering of rocks by driving the roots into
fine cracks or holes in the rocks. They also enable water and moisture to enter
into the rocks which further enables weathering. On the other hand, the plant or
grass cover on the soils prevents easy denudation or transportation of soil by
wind or water.
Can you discuss in the class how the
following human actions impact the
Human beings, especially after the
lithosphere?
Industrial Revolution, have had a major
i. Mining ii. Building cities with bricks role in transforming the crust on which
and cement iii. Agriculture iv. Dams
we live.
Free distribution by T.S. Government

25

Key words
1. Plate tectonics
4. Loess plains

2. Igneous rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks
5. ‘U’ shaped valley

Improve your learning
1. Fill in the blanks. (AS1)
Hydrosphere is related to _________
Lithosphere is related to ________
Atmosphere is related to ________
Biosphere is related to ________
2. Find the odd one out in the context of lithosphere and give reasons for your choice
Byson gorge; Grand canyon; Ozone; Thar desert. (AS1)
3. How is the lithosphere formed? (AS1)
4. How are the continental plates formed and how are they eventually destroyed? (AS1)
5. List out the landforms formed due to the river work. (AS1)
6. Draw a table as given below and fill information. And write a small paragraph to explain
the similarities and differences that you can think of in the context of earth’s external
changes. (if there is no information available in the text, leave the columns blank) (AS3)
Wind

Water

Glacier

Landform
Process

7.
8.
9.
10.

Why are Glaciers not found in your surroundings? (AS1)
How are Beaches formed and name some Beaches. (AS1)
How is the human lifestyle responsible for extension of deserts? (AS4)
Find out the order of the landforms for the following: (AS1)
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Landform
The Himalayan Mountains
The Pacific Ocean
Asia Continent
Byson Gorge
Jog waterfall
Rocky mountains
The Indian Ocean
The great rift valley

Order of Landform
II order Land form

11. Draw the map of world plates by observing map 2. (AS5)
12. Read the para under the title ‘Erosion’ on page 20 and comment on it. (AS2)

Project
Collect newspaper or magazine articles and news on earthquakes and volcanoes. Prepare
an illustrated file on these – how do they happen and how they affect human life.
26

Social Studies

The Natural Realms of the Earth

CHAPTER

Hydrosphere

3

It has been raining on Earth for thousands of years. Have you ever thought
about why the water in the seas and oceans never dries up? Less than 1% of water
that reaches the earth is useful to human beings. Can this water meet the necessities
of all living beings? To know the answers to all these questions, let us read about
the Hydrological cycle.

Hydrological Cycle
Water is a cyclical renewable resource. It can be used and reused. Water goes
through a cycle from oceans to land and then from land to the oceans. The water
cycle has been going on for billions of years and all the life on earth depends on
it.
Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water in different forms i.e., liquid,
solid and gaseous phases. It also refers to the continuous exchange of water between
the oceans, atmosphere, land surface, sub surface and all the living organisms.
The hydrological cycle is sometimes expressed mathematically as
RF = RO + ET
Where RF (Rain Fall) includes all types of precipitation, RO is run off, ET is
Evapo Transpiration.
There are six stages in the water cycle.
Evaporation
Precipitation

Transportation
Run off

Condensation
Groundwater

Evaporation: Water is transferred from the surface of Earth to the atmosphere
through evaporation, the process by which water changes from liquid to gas. Sun’s
warmth heats up and evaporates the water from the earth’s surface. Land, lakes,
rivers and oceans send up a steady stream of water vapours through this process.
Plants also lose water to the air through transpiration.
Transportation: The movement of water through the atmosphere specifically
from over the ocean to over land, in the form of clouds is transportation. Clouds
are propelled from one place to another by either upper air circulation, surfacebased circulations like land and sea breezes or other mechanisms.
Condensation: The transported water vapour eventually condenses, forming
tiny droplets and clouds.
Free distribution by T.S. Government

27

Lakes
Rivers

Fig. 3.1: Hydrological cycle

Precipitation: The primary mechanism for transporting water from the
atmosphere to the surface of the earth is precipitation. When the clouds meet cool
air over land, precipitation, in the form of rain, sleet or snow is triggered and water
returns to the land (or sea).
Run off: Most of the water which returns to land flows down the hills as run
off. Some of it penetrates into the land and charges the groundwater while the rest,
as the rivers flow, returns to the oceans where it evaporates.
Groundwater:
Under
special
Percentage
circumstances, groundwater can even flow Reservoir
upward in artesian wells. The flow of
of the Total Water
groundwater is much slower than runoff.
Oceans
97 . 25 %
The hydrological cycle is not a simple Icecaps and glaciers
2 . 05 %
process of circulation of water between
Groundwater
0 . 68 %
ocean, atmosphere and the land. There are a
Lakes
0 . 01 %
number of sub-cycles operating within it.
Soil moisture
0 . 005 %
Water Sources
Atmosphere
0 . 001 %
97.25% of water is saline ocean water and Rivers
0 . 0001 %
only 2.75% is fresh water. The greatest portion
Biosphere
0 . 00004 %
of the fresh water (68.7%) is in the form of
28

Social Studies

Hydrosphere

ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctica, the Arctic and in the mountain
regions, 29.9% exists as fresh ground waters. Only 0.26% of the total amount of
fresh water on the earth is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs and river system, where
it is most easily accessible for our needs and absolutely vital for the water
ecosystems.

Oceans
Continents and oceans are the first order relief features of the earth. The large
water bodies are called oceans. The geographers have divided the oceanic part of
the earth into five oceans namely: The Pacific Ocean, The Atlantic Ocean, The
Indian Ocean, The Southern Ocean (Antarctic Ocean), and The Arctic Ocean.
The word ‘sea’ is often used interchangeably with ‘ocean’, but strictly speaking,
a sea is a body of saline water, partly or fully enclosed by land.
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various
archipelagoes and other criteria. See the table below for more information: Note
that the table is in descending order in terms of size.
Rank
Ocean
1
The Pacific ocean
2
3
4
5

Notes
Separates Asia and Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea together) from the Americas.
The Atlantic ocean
Separates the America from Europe and Africa.
The Indian ocean
Washes upon Southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia.
The Antarctic ocean Sometimes considered an extension of the Pacific, Atlantic and
(Southern ocean)
Indian oceans which encircles Antarctica
The Arctic ocean
Sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic, which covers much
of the Arctic and washes upon North America and Eurasia.

Do You Know?
Millions of years ago, oceans were
combined together. The single super
ocean was known as ‘panthalsa’.

Formal oceanographic investigation
began only with the British expedition of
Challenger, the first successful world wide
deep-sea expedition.

Relief of the Ocean
The ocean basins are in many ways similar to the land surface. There are
submarine ridges, plateaus, canyons and terraces found within oceans. Ocean floor
is divided into four parts.
1) Continental Shelf: The continental shelf, with a depth of up to 200 mts,
occupies about 7.6% of the ocean area. It is the border zone between land and sea.
The largest continental shelf is Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, stretching to
1,500 kms in width.
Free distribution by T.S. Government

29

Continental Shelf is important because:
Fish wealth is more in this region.
Petroleum, natural gas are found here.
Building seaport is possible here.
Continental Shelf
Continental Slope
Submarine
Canyon
Submarine
Canyon
Deep Sea Plain
Mid Oceanic Ridge

Guyots

Oceanic Trenchs

Fig 3.2: Ocean floor

2) Continental Slope: The Continental slope is spread from 200 mts to 3,000
mts depth, with a complex relief. It comprises of 15% of the ocean area. The
continental slope boundary indicates the continents. Submarine canyons have also
been observed in this region. These are formed by the process of erosion of glaciers
and rivers.
3) Deep Sea plain (or) Abyssal Plain: Deep sea plains are gently sloping
areas of the ocean basins. These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world.
The depths vary between 3000-6000 mts. It covers about 76.2% of the ocean basin.
4) Oceanic deeps (or) Trenches: These are
Do You Know?
large narrow trenches that plunge as great ocean
deeps to a depth of 6,000 mts. Contrary to our Isobaths – A line joining points on
expectations, most of the deepest trenches are not the sea bed at an equal vertical
located in the midst of oceans. They are found more distance beneath the surface.
close to the continents. That is why they are very Sometimes referred to as depth
significant in the study of plate movements. As many contours.
as 57 deeps have been explored so far.
Sl. No
1
2

Do you know major ocean trenches?
Name of the trench
Ocean
Challenger (or) Mariana
The Pacific Ocean
Puertorico (or) Naves
The Atlantic Ocean

3

Java

30

Social Studies

The Indian Ocean

Depth (mts)
11,022
10,475
7,450
Hydrosphere

Salinity of the Ocean
Have you ever eaten food without salt? Was it tasty? Did early human beings
use salt in their food? Where is salt available other than the oceans? Is salt used
just for taste or for any other reasons? Is water salty in your village tank? If not,
why is ocean water salty? Did you know that using salt as a medium of protest,
Mahatma Gandhi had lead the civil disobedience movement (or) Dandi march which
was one of the biggest freedom movements in the world?
Have you ever wondered why the oceans are filled with salt water instead of
fresh water? Where did the salt come from and is it the same salt you find on your
dining room table? Most of the salt in the oceans come from land. Over millions
of years, rain, rivers and streams have washed over rocks containing the compound
Sodium Chloride (NaCl), and carried it into the sea. You may know Sodium Chloride
by its common name table salt. Some of the salt in the oceans comes from under
sea volcanoes and hydro thermal vents. When water evaporates from the surface
of the ocean, the salt is left behind. Over millions of years, the oceans have
developed a noticeably salty water.
Salinity is the term used
to define the total content of
dissolved salts in sea water.
It is calculated as the amount
of salt (in grams) dissolved
in 1,000 gms of sea water. It
is usually expressed as parts
per thousand (%0) or PPT.
Generally speaking, the
average salinity of the oceans
is 35%0 or about 35 parts of
salt in 1,000 parts of water.
All sea water contains large
amounts of dissolved
mineral matter, of which
Sodium Chloride or common
salt alone constitutes 77.8%.

Do You Know?
River water contains 2%0
of sodium chloride.
Fig. 3.3: Water Salinity
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31

Factors affecting salinity on the surface layers of the Ocean:
1. Evaporation and precipitation.
2. In coastal regions, by the fresh water flow from rivers and in Polar regions,
by the process of freezing and thawing of ice.
3. Winds by transferring water to other areas.
4. The ocean currents.

Do You Know?
Highest Salinity in Water bodies
1) Lake Van – Turkey – 330%0
2) Dead Sea – Israel – 238%0
3) Great Salt lake – USA – 220%0

Lowest Salinity in Water bodies
1) Baltic Sea – 3-15%0
2) Hudson Bay – 3-15%0

Isohaline: A line joining the points in the
ocean having the same degree of salinity.

Give reasons for the low salinity
of Baltic sea.

Ocean Temperature
When compared to land, the temperature in the oceans does not show much
variation. But these little variations show great impact. For example, the activeness
of South West monsoon in India is affected by ‘El Nino’ and ‘La Nino’. These are
the effects caused by the changes in temperature in the Pacific Ocean. The ocean
temperature is influenced by latitudes, winds, ocean currents, unequal distribution
of land and change of seasons.
Do You Know?
Normally, the temperature in the
The highest temperature is recorded in Inland
oceans varies from – 20C to 290C.
Seas. The temperature is the highest in Red Sea
Vertical Distribution of
i.e. 380C.
Temperature: As one goes deep
inside the oceans, the temperature decreases. The fall in temperature is very steep
for the first kilometre. After that, there is a steady decline upto a depth of 5
kilometres. Below that, the temperature is steady at about 20C.

Ocean Currents
The ocean current is the general movement of a mass of water in a fairly defined
direction over a great distance. The ocean currents are sometimes called ocean
rivers. Ocean currents may be classified, based on temperature, as cold currents
and warm currents.
Generally, warm currents flow towards the poles, cold currents flow towards
the Equator. Ocean currents are classified as stream and drift, based on their speed.
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The ocean water current which flows speedily is called a stream and that which
flows slowly is called a drift.Ocean currents are caused by the following factors.
1. Centrifugal Force: The Centrifugal force at the equator is greater than that
at the poles because the great circles at the time of revolution coincide with the
equator. The variation of these forces makes the equatorial water to move towards
the poles.
2. Effect of Winds: The stresses due to wind and the wind movement modifies
the direction of the currents. Due to the frictional gliding of winds, water is dragged
along the wind direction. Thus, a wind at the speed of 50 miles per hour will produce
a current whose velocity would be 0.75 miles per hour.
3. Precipitation: The equatorial areas receive the greatest rainfall. Hence, the
sea level is higher. As a result, water moves north and south from the equator.
4. Solar Energy: Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is
why, the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level near the equator than in the
middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the
slope.
Salinity, density differences, melting of ice also affect the ocean currents.

Ocean as a Resource
Most life on earth is under the water. Human beings still have not finished
identifying all the different forms of life in the oceans. Human beings have depended
on oceans for their food and livelihood from the ancient times. Oceans provided
abundant food resources like fish and salt. We also use the sand, gravel etc. for our
industries or housing. Humans extract minerals like chlorine, fluorine, iodine from
it. Ocean waves are used for generating power. Ocean floor is mined for oils. Oceans
also provide us with
gems and pearls. For
centuries, we have
created our civilisations
on its shores and traded
across with each other
travelling on them.
Yet today, oceans
have also fallen victim
to our exploitation.
Many large fish like
whales have been
disappearing. Oceans
have also become
dumping ground for
plastic and other forms
Fig. 3.4: Petroleum drilling at Bombay High
of toxic waste.
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33

Do You Know?
Access of Pure Water
68.7% Ice and snow
29.9% Underground water
1.4%
Rivers, lakes and reserviors
100.0% Total

Key words
1. Stream
2. Drift
3. Ocean currents
4. Transpiration

Improve your learning
1. Find the odd one out and give an explanation for your choice. (AS1)
(i) a) evaporation b) condensation
c) salination
d) precipitation
(ii) a) tectonics
b) centrifugal force c) solar energy
d) precipitation
2. Correct the false statements. (AS1)
a) Ocean trenches can be located near the continents
b) Relief features of the oceans are like plains
c) Most salt in the seas is washed into it from land over centuries
d) Temperature of ocean water remains the same across the globe
3. Do you think that the description of blue planet is accurate? Describe any one way
in which your activity impacts its oceans. (AS1)
4. Why are there differences in the salinity of oceans? (AS1)
5. How is human life dependent upon oceans? (AS6)
6. Observe the map 1 on page 35 and write down the names of a few warm and cold
currents.(AS5)
7. Read the para ‘Ocean as a Resource’ on page 33 and comment on it. (AS2)

Project
Prepare a list of currents which are found in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Identify the cold and warm currents in different oceans. Fill in the table.
The Pacific Ocean
Warm
currents

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Cold
currents

Social Studies

The Atlantic Ocean
Warm
currents

Cold
currents

The Indian Ocean
Warm
currents

Hydrosphere

Cold
currents

Map 1: Ocean currents
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35

CHAPTER

Atmosphere

4

In the previous chapters, you read about Lithosphere and Hydrosphere. In
this chapter, we will read about Atmosphere.
We breathe the oxygen present in the air. Living beings can’t live without it.
When we breathe out, we give out carbon dioxide. Apart from giving oxygen to us,
atmosphere also makes life possive for us in many other ways. For example, it
prevents the harmful rays of the sun from reaching us. Green plants take in the
carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere, use sunlight and water to photosynthesise,
and we end up getting delicious fruits, vegetable, grains etc. from them. These
give us proteins, carbohydrates, sugars, fats, minerals, and other nutrients that we
need to live. It is the atmospheric winds that transports water from the oceans to
the continents in the form of rain. Without this, the different types of rocks would
not erode. This means that different kinds of soils would not be available. So, we
would not be able to grow different kinds of crops.
We wouldn’t be able to enjoy the cooling monsoon rains, the scents of
fragrant flowers, and the sounds of music in the absence of atmosphere. We
would not be able to fly the beautiful kites as their would be no wind. Birds
would n’t fly or soar in the sky. Flags would not flutter.
So, what is this wonderful and awesome thing called atmosphere?

Fig. 4.1: A picture of Earth taken from about 322 km above the Earth. The
atmosphere is that thin blue band between Earth and the black colour of space
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Atmosphere is a sea of gases surrounding the Earth. In a sense, we are all
swimming in a sea of gases (just as fishes swim in a sea of water). When we
compare it with the size of the Earth, atmosphere is a very thin blanket surrounding
Earth. The atmosphere is about 1,000 kms thick. [National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), the space agency of the USA] gives this description: if
Earth were the size of a basketball, the atmosphere would be like a thin sheet of
plastic wrapped around it.
Being composed of gases, the
atmosphere exhibits all the properties of
gases – it compresses and expands and it
Our skin dries up more during winters.
has no shape. (Gas can be stuffed more and
Why?
more into a small space like you do it in
your cycle tube – this is compression of gas.) There are many gases in the
atmosphere, but oxygen (about 21% in volume) and nitrogen (about 78% in volume)
dominate. Other gases are present in very small percentages; these include argon,
neon, carbon dioxide (about 0.03% by volume), methane, ammonia, ozone etc.
What will happen if water vapour is not
present in air?

Water vapour accounts for about 0.4% of volume in the atmosphere, but most
of it is close to the surface (within about 6 km above Earth). Yes, water vapour is a
gas! No, the clouds that you see in the sky are not water vapour, they are water
droplets.
Apart from these gases, the atmosphere also has fine dust particles; these are
called particulates. Particulates may come from natural processes (for example:
sand storms over deserts and natural forest fires) and from human activity (for
example: burning forests, burning petroleum and industrial emissions).
These particulates can change the atmospheric conditions that may be beneficial
for life on Earth. Have you ever seen a beautiful, bright orange sunrise or sunset?
Particulates in the atmosphere cause that bright colour! And that rainfall you love
List out some of the ways in which to play in? The hail stones you love to
collect and eat? The particulates make these
particulates in the atmosphere are
also possible. The particulates can also
beneficial and harmful to us.
cause problems by altering the temperature
Why is atmosphere important for us? and rainfall patterns. For example: they can
Can you imagine why life is not make it difficult for people to breathe, they
can settle on leaves and make it difficult
possible on the Moon?
for plants to breathe and photosynthesise.

Structure of the Atmosphere
Just like the interior of the earth is arranged as layers, atmosphere too is
arranged into various layers, having different compositions. Can you imagine the
layers? It is not an easy job to study the structure of the atmosphere which is very
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37

widely spread. Scientists research about it through air balloons, satellites etc. On
the basis of chemical composition, the atmosphere is divided into two broad layers:
1) Homosphere
2) Heterosphere
Homosphere: Homosphere extends up to a height of 90 kms. It consists of
three layers: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere. It is characterised by
uniformity in composition of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argan and carbondioxide.
Heterosphere: The layer above 90 kms of the homosphere is called
heterosphere. It has a heterogenous composition and hence, the name heterosphere.
It has two layers called Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Atmosphere can also be divided into various layers based on density and
temperature.

Fig. 4.2: Structure of the atmosphere

1. Troposphere: Troposphere is the lower most layer of the atmosphere. Its
average height is 13 kms and extends roughly to a height of 8 kms near the poles
and about 18 kms at the equator. Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the
equator because heat is transported to greater heights by strong convectional
currents.
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It contains about 75% of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere and
practically all the moisture and dust particles. The entire weather phenomenon
happens in this sphere. The temperature in this layer decreases as we go higher
which is known as Normal Lapse Rate. Condensation, evaporation, precipitation,
rainfall, cyclones etc. occur in this layer.
2. Stratosphere: This layer extends up to a height of 50 kms. This layer is
almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions
most ideal for flying jet aircrafts. One important feature of stratosphere is that it
contains ozone layer. The temperature increases as there is increase in altitude.
3. Mesosphere: It extends up to a height of 80 kms. Meteorites burn up as they
enter this layer from the space. Temperature starts decreasing with the increase in
altitude.
4. Thermosphere: It extends up to 400 kms. In thermosphere, temperature
rises rapidly with increase in height. It contains electrically charged particles known
as ions. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by
these ions. It is also known as
In which layer is life present in the
Ionosphere.
atmosphere?
5. Exosphere: It is the upper
About which layer do we have very little
most layer of the atmosphere. This
knowledge?
is the highest layer and very little is
Which layer of the atmosphere is ideal for known about it.
flying jet aircrafts? Why?

Pressure Belts and Planetary Winds
Air Pressure: The air around us is composed of gas molecules (very tiny
particles). These molecules are constantly pushing each other or any object that
comes their way. This push effect they exert together on any object is described as
Air Pressure. Thus, air exerts pressure not only from the top but also from the
bottom and all the sides of an object that it is exposed to air on those sides.
The pressure of air increases if there are more molecules present – This usually
happens on the surface of the earth – as the earth pulls most of the air molecules to
its surface due to its gravitational pull.
However, this changes when the air is heated up. When gas molecules are heated
up (usually due to the heating of the Earth’s surface), they get a lot of energy and
start moving very fast. This initially would mean an increase in pressure as they
will push the object more. However, the energised molecules start flying off higher
and higher. Remember they have more energy now to defy the pull of the earth!
When more molecules go to higher reaches of the atmosphere, the places near the
earth will have less of them – this means less pushing around or less pressure.
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39

That is why geographers say that when it gets hot, the air pressure becomes low
and when it becomes cool, air pressure increases. In simpler terms: if one increases,
the other decreases – this is called an inverse relationship.
When heated air rises, it starts losing the energy (in the form of heat) that it got
from Earth’s surface. When the energy decreases, the molecules slow down,
become more sluggish, and get closer to each other – air becomes cooler and
denser. Dense air starts falling back towards Earth’s surface due to gravity. They
don’t have enough energy to fight against gravity any more! Wherever this cool air
descends, the air pressure increases.
That is not all. When any part of the earth heats up and causes low pressure, it
means that there is more vacant space and less molecules. Now, air from other
parts where the pressure is higher moves towards this vacant place. It is not difficult
for them for they have to only move along the earth’s surface and thus need not go
too much against gravity. That is why we say that wind flows from high pressure
areas to low pressure areas.

Pressure Belts
The Earth’s surface does not heat uniformly. Land heats up faster than sea. The
land which is deep inland heats up faster than the land near the sea. So the air above
the land gets heated more quickly. Water takes more time to heat. So the air above
water gets heated more slowly.
However, when it comes to cooling, land cools faster and water cools down
slower in comparison to land. So, the heating and cooling is happening at different
rates in different places. Therefore, the pressures are also varying from place to
place.
There’s even more! You have learned about the relationship between latitudes
and seasons. You learned that the tropical latitudes receive the most intense amount
of solar radiation and are hotter than temperate or polar latitudes that receive less
intense solar radiation. Hence, the tropics are hotter than the rest of the world. So,
with temperature variation there is pressure variation around the world.
Just as water moves from a higher place to a lower place and heat moves from
warmer objects to cooler objects, air moves from areas of higher pressure to areas
of lower pressure. When air moves like that, we call it wind.
If it moves at a slow pace and we feel comfortable in it, we call it a breeze. If
the wind comes in a short and fast burst, we call it gust. If it moves very fast and
blows things around, we call it a storm. Along the Andhra Pradesh coast, we
experience cyclones which are very high-speed winds.
Winds are constantly moving all over the world. At the equator, the high
temperature heats up the atmosphere and the hot air rises, creating lower pressure
at the Earth’s surface around the equator. This low-pressure belt (it is like a belt
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around the Earth!) is called equatorial low pressure belt or the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (shortened to ‘ITCZ’). As this air rises, it cools and starts
descending. But it cannot come back from the same path that it took when it went
up. As it reaches the higher layers of the atmosphere, the air spreads away from the
equatorial region towards northern and southern hemisphere. As it spreads, it also
starts descending – it is cooler, denser, and so starts to sink back to Earth. Where
it descends, we find the pressure is higher and this phenomenon is called sub tropical
high pressure belt.
Having come down, as the air hits the Earth’s surface, it splits into two parts one part again rushes towards the equatorial lower pressure area. When they get
there, they get heated again and rise. Thus, the equatorial cycling of wind continues.
The other part is pushed towards the next higher latitudes where the pressure is
lower. To understand the process better let us call these winds “A.” (Remember,
“A” is not an official name for these winds, we are using it for convenience.)

Fig. 4.3:Pressure Belts and Planetary winds
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41

The air in the areas near the north pole and south pole is so cold that the air
there is at higher pressure (polar high pressure belt) than in the area around the
latitudes, along the Arctic Circle (in the north) and the Antarctic Circle (in the
south) (sub polar low pressure belt). So, the polar winds rush towards these lower
pressure areas. There, they meet the “A” winds.

Fig. 4.4: Diagram showing Coriolis effect

Normally we would have expected the winds to move in a straight line from
north to south, or south to north from the temperate zone to the tropic zone.
(remember that temperate zones are there both to the south and north of the Equator.)
But actually the winds move slightly to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere. This is because of the impact of Earth’s rotation
on its own axis. This effect is called Coriolis effect, having ‘0’ effect near the
equator and maximum effect near the poles.
Thus, the atmosphere is always surrounding the earth on all sides in circulation.
The winds play a very important role in the weather and climate patterns around the
world. They have also played a very important role in history. For example, Vasco
da Gama found the sea route to India using winds to power his ships. He was able to
transport and trade large quantities of pepper, cinnamon etc. to Portugal because
of this. In this way, these winds also were crucial to the establishment of the
Portuguese rule over Goa.
Remember, there are also many small local variations in the wind patterns.
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Classification of Winds
Depending upon the speed of the winds, their features, their directions and the
way they occur, winds are classified into three types :
A. Planetary winds - Present on the planet as a whole through out the year.
B. Seasonal winds - Restricted to regions or seasonal in character.
C. Local winds - Local in character.
A. Planetary Winds: The winds that blow continuously and regularly above
the world pressure belts are known as planetary winds. These are of 3 types -Trade
winds, Westerlies and Polar winds; Trade winds in the tropics, westerlies in the
temperate belt, polar winds in the polar belt. Trade winds are Easterly in direction
i.e moving from East to West. They are North East trades in Northern hemisphere
and South East trades in Southern hemisphere. Westerlies, on the other hand, blow
from West to East, that’s why they are
Observe the figure 4.3 and describe called westerlies. They are South West
between which pressure belts are the bound in Northern hemisphere and
Westerlies, trade winds and polar North West bound in Southern
hemisphere. Polar regions also
Easterlies are blowing.
experience Easterlies.
Effects of Planetary Winds: You would have noted that the pressure and wind
systems are actually a result of the impact of Lithosphere and Hydrosphere on
Atmosphere. These winds play a crucial role in transporting heat and moisture across
the world. That is why no part of the world gets too cold or too hot for life to
survive. Had there been no atmosphere (as on the Moon) it would have got intolerably
hot during day or in the tropics and intolerably cold at night or in the Polar regions.
However, these winds do not distribute heat or moisture uniformly – which is why
some parts of the earth are quite hot, some parts cooler and some parts with high
rainfall and some which are deserts.
B. Seasonal Winds: The rainfall that happens in India is mainly due to seasonal
winds. All factors in the country are related to monsoons. Monsoon is derived
from Arabic word Mausam.
Existence of monsoon is due to differential cooling of land and sea. Summer
monsoon develops over north-western India, while south-east trades cross the
equator. As a result of coriolis effect, it becomes south west monsoon over
peninsular India and adjacent countries. In winter, reversal of pressure belts i.e
north-east trade winds cross the equator. As a result of coriolis effect, it becomes
north-west monsoon over the north, north-east Australia.
C. Local Winds: The local winds blow due to local variation in the temperature
and pressure, and influence a very small area. Hot local winds raise the temperature
of the area. Cold local winds sometimes bring the temperature of the affected area
below the freezing points. These local winds blow in the lower layer of the
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43

troposphere. The mountain and the valley breezes, as well as sea and land breezes
are also one class of local winds. These winds respond to local pressure gradients
(pressure changes) set up by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere.

Hot Local Winds
1. Chinook : These winds move down the Rocky mountains in the USA-Canada and part
of North America. Many people believe that the word Chinook means “snow eater”.

Fig. 4.5: Chinook

Actually, it is the name of a native American tribe called the Chinook, people who lived
in the region where these winds are observed. It keeps the grass lands clear of snow
during must of the winter. Similar winds that below in Europe are called Foehn. They
blow along the northern slope of the Alps. This melts the snow, makes the weather
pleasant and helps in early ripening of the grapes.
2. Loo: These are hot and dry winds blowing in the plains of northern India from the
west to east in the months of May and June. It may cause sunstroke to people because
of high temperatures.

Simmon in Arabian desert, Yoma in Japan, Norwester in New Zealand are some of
the other examples of hot winds.

Cold Local Winds
1. Mistral: The most famous is the mistral that blows from the Alps over France towards the Mediterranean Sea. It is channeled through the Rhome Valley. It is a very
cold and dry wind.
2. Puna: This is the cold local wind in the Andes region.
3. Pampero: These are the cold polar winds blowing very fast in the Pampas region of
South America.
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Weather and Climate
Perhaps you have heard of a cricket match being postponed due to ‘bad’ weather
(rain). You may have had to postpone your own games due to rain or excessive heat
saying, “The weather is not suitable.” You may have also heard people say, “This
year, the monsoons are on time.” The prices of most fruits go up when they are
‘not in season’ but come down when they are ‘in season.’ You may also have heard
things like, “The climate in north India is not suitable for me!”
These two words, weather and climate are very important concepts in geography.
They shape our lives in many ways. And many people confuse the terms and say
‘weather’ when they mean ‘climate’ and vice versa. You will know the difference
between the two by the end of this section.
This mixture of gases and particulates that we call the ‘atmosphere’ is not static.
It is very dynamic; it moves up and down and horizontally in all directions. As it
does so, its characteristics change – it may get warmer or cooler, wet or drier etc.
When we describe the condition of the atmosphere for small period of time (usually
about 10 days at most), we are talking about weather. Weather can change daily
even within a day!
Climate is description of the average atmospheric conditions for specific areas
over a long period of time. Climatic descriptions are based on decades of
atmospheric data and finding the averages of these data. Climate descriptions tell
us what conditions are going to prevail at a given time of the year, but not on specific
days.
How do we describe the atmosphere? We measure (a) temperature, (b) pressure,
(c) wind, (d) humidity, and (e) precipitation. These are called the elements of
weather. We use these to describe climate also, as you will see soon; so these are
also elements of climate. You have just learned about pressure and winds above.
Let us take a look at the other elements now.
Temperature: In class VIII, you learnt about the temperature of the atmosphere.
We had compared the temperature patterns for Panaji, Shimla, and Delhi. You had
also learned that Shimla, being at a higher altitude than Panaji and Delhi, had cooler
temperature. On Earth’s surface, as you go higher in altitude, the temperatures
decreases.

Humidity and Precipitation
In this section, we will understand how water cycle works in the atmosphere.
You can see how hydrosphere and atmosphere interact with each other. Water vapour
is a very important component in the atmosphere. In most places, the amount of
water vapour in the atmosphere varies over time and as part of changing weather
patterns. In many places, in winter, it is dry and cold. In such places, our skin may
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45

feel itchy, dry, and it may crack. You will probably have experienced cracked lips
for which you may have used lip balm, vaseline, or oil.
Combined with high temperature, it is the water vapour that makes you feel
sultry and sweaty. When this happens, we say it is ‘very humid’ or ‘the humidity is
high.’ But not all places are similar in this respect. Some places feel very dry
(example: deserts). The moisture (water vapour) in the atmosphere is derived from
water bodies through evaporation and from
Do You Know?
plants through transpiration. Humidity is the
amount of water vapour in the air. In high
Hygrometer is an Instrument that
humidity, our sweat doesn’t cool us because it
measures the water vapour content
cannot evaporate. In low humidity, we also feel (Humidity) of the air.
more thirsty.
Remember those particulates you learned about earlier? Recall how they help
in rainfall.
We express humidity not directly, but using the concept of relative humidity.
Relative humidity is the ratio between two things:
1. The maximum water vapour that the air can hold at a given temperature and
pressure, and
2. The actual amount of water vapour it holds at any given time.
For example, at 20oC temperature air can contain 80 gms of water vapour per
cubic meter. If the actual water vapour present is only 40 gms, the relative humidity
is 50%. Relative humidity increases with the decrease of temperature or addition
of water vapour. Relative humidity decreases with the increase of temperatures and
decrease of water vapour. The critical temperature at which saturation level is reached
is called dew point. Have you seen dew drops? Where are they found? If the
atmosphere has 100% relative humidity, it is known as saturation level.

Condensation
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation, as it involves conversion of water
vapour into droplets of water or crystals of ice. When the relative humidity exceeds
100%, the excess of water vapour present in the atmosphere gets condensed as
minute droplets of water. For example, when air at a temperature of 20oC contains
49 gms of water vapour per cubic meter and gets cooled to 10oC it can hold only
40 gms of water vapour at saturation level. The excess of 9 gms of water vapour
gets condensed. Condensation can take place only when minute solid particles are
present in the atmosphere. Condensation can also take place on a contact surface.
For example, have you observed what happens when cold water is filled in a glass?
Condensation happens on the outer side of the glass as the moisture in the air
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comes in contact with a cold surface. When water vapour condenses on surfaces
such as plants, dew drop form.
Dust particles also attract water molecules from the water vapour in the
atmosphere. This causes condensation (condensation means becoming denser) of
the vapour into droplets. Millions and millions of these droplets appear together
as different kinds of clouds. If the clouds are cold enough, they may also contain
ice crystals. Clouds are classified into different types on the basis of their forms
and heights at which they are found. For example, Cirrus clouds (at higher level),
cumulus clouds (at middle level), stratus (at lower level), nimbus (rain bearing,
and vertical clouds).
With condensation, the droplets get heavy and fall on Earth as precipitation
(from the Latin word praecipitatio meaning to fall headlong, to plummet) – in the
form of rain, snow, hail, etc. If these droplets condense very close to Earth’s surface,
the droplets are lighter and we get fog.

Forms of Precipitation
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation. When condensation takes
place at temperatures below freezing point, water vapour condenses directly into
ice crystals. These may fall on the earth as a powdery mass or flakes of snow. This
form of precipitation is called snowfall. Snowfall is quite common in middle and
high latitudes, and mountain regions.
When rain falls through a cold layer of air near the earth’s surface, rain drops
get frozen into ice and fall down. This form of precipitation is called sleet.
When there are strong vertical currents in the atmosphere, condensation takes
place at high altitudes at low temperature. Ice crystals grow in size gradually but
do not fall owing to ascending currents. Eventually, the ice crystals grow to a large
size of a few centimeters in diameter and fall down as solid masses. This form of
precipitation is called hail stone. Hail stone causes damage to crops and buildings.

Types of Rainfall
On the basis of their origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types:
1) Convectional Rainfall
2) Orographic Rainfall
3) Cyclonic Rainfall
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47

Convectional Rainfall: This type of rainfall takes place when moist air over
the heated ground becomes warmer than the surrounding air and is forced to rise,
expand, cool and yield some of its moisture. Convectional rainfall is common in
low latitudes and on summer days in interior part of the continents, and usually
come in the form of short heavy showers just after the hottest part of the day,
sometimes accompanied by thunder and lightening.

Fig. 4.6: Convectional rainfall

Orographic Rainfall: ‘Orographic’ rainfall is also sometimes called
‘orogenic’ rainfall. We get this term from the Greek word oros, meaning
‘mountain.’ This occurs when moist wind is forced to rise over a mountain or
other elevation in its path. Thus the windward sides of many mountain ranges receive
heavy precipitation; whereas the leeward sides along which the air moves down
receives less rain fall. Such situation occurs widely along the western coast of
India.
The moist air from the Arabian Sea is forced by the Western Ghats to rise up
resulting in expansion, cooling, and rainfall. On the other side of the Western
Ghats, the descending wind is devoid of moisture and hence, does not give the rain
in the central part of Deccan Plateau. Hence, this region is dry and known as rainshadow region.
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Atmosphere

Fig. 4.7: Orographic Rainfall

Cyclonic rainfall: This type of rainfall is associated with the passage of a
cyclone or a depression. There are two types of cyclones – the tropical cyclones
and the temperate cyclones. The term cyclone is derived from the Greek word
‘kyklon’ meaning ‘revolving.’
Tropical cyclones are warm-core vortex circulation of tropical origin with a
small diameter (some hundreds of kilometers) often of an approximately circular
shape, minimum surface pressure (less than 900 mb) with sustained maximum
winds of at least 33m/sec.
They are developed on the
warm sea surface (26oC to
27oC) and move towards the
land. The winds are lifted up
by the movement of cyclones.
The uplifted air gives heavy
rainfall. Temperate cyclones
occur when the cold, dry,
denser air masses converge
with warm, wet, lighter air
masses. The warmer air, being
lighter, is lifted up by the
denser cold air and results in
Fig. 4.8: Tropical Cyclone
rainfall.
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49

Rainfall across the globe:
1. Between the latitudes 10o and 30o N and S of the equator, due to the trade
winds, rainfall is heavier on the eastern coasts, and decreases towards the
west.
2. Between the latitudes 40o and 60o N and S of the equator due to the westerlies,
the rainfall is heavy on the west coast, and decreases towards the East.
3. Low pressure areas, especially around the equator receive high rainfall than
high pressure areas.
4. The rainfall is higher over the oceans than on the continent.

Key words
1. Convectional currents

2. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.

3. Coriolis effect

4. Relative humidity

5. Leeward side

6. Tropical Cyclones

Improve your learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Explain the composition of the atmosphere. (AS1)
Discuss the structure of the atmosphere along with a diagram. (AS1)
Differentiate between weather and climate. (AS1)
Compare and contrast convectional and orographic rainfall. (AS1)
Describe the distribution of rainfall across the world. (AS1)
How do climatic changes influence human life? (AS4)
Explain relative humidity? (AS1)
Why does the amount of water vapour decrease rapidly with altitude? (AS1)
What is coriolis effect? And explain its effects. (AS1)
Identify the location of the given local winds in the world map? (AS5)
a) Chinook
b) Loo
c) Simoon
d) Yoma
e) Norwester
f) Mistral
g) Puna
h) Pampero
11. Read the paragraph under the title ‘Effects of Planetary Winds’ on page 43 and
comment on it. (AS2)

Project
1. Collect weather information covered by media such as newspapers, TV, Radio etc.
to understand weather phenomenon.
2. Collect the newspapers from July to December and note down the news related to
extreme rainfall in different parts of country.
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Atmosphere

Biosphere

CHAPTER

5

The Earth is a unique planet, in that it has life thriving on it. It is inhabited by
countless forms of life from microscopic bacteria to great banyan trees and animals
like elephants, tigers, blue whales and, of course, human beings. The fact that the
earth has a combination of land, air and water and a moderate temperature due to a
moderate distance from the Sun, has made life possible on it. We saw in an earlier
chapter that life thrives only in the intersection of the three spheres – lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere. According to many geographers, life itself constitutes
a separate sphere called ‘biosphere’.
All forms of life have an integral connection with the land, air, water and
sunshine around them. They draw their sustenance from them and, in turn, affect
them in significant ways.
Various forms of life are not only related to the three spheres around them, but
also to each other. They are part of a complex ‘food chain’ – that is, one kind of life
becomes food for another kind. Many
Can you tell how are plants dependent of the life forms are also symbiotic,
upon air and water and how they affect that is, they live by exchanging essential
the two in return?
substances with each other. Let us
In what ways are insects like mosquitoes consider some examples:
The primary food producers are
and butterflies dependent upon rocks or
soil and water? How do they affect them plants which produce food with the help
of sunlight. The plants themselves draw
in return?
their vital nutrients from the soil,
especially from organic compounds formed due to decay of other plants and animals.
They also depend upon nitrogen stored in the soil by bacteria. The food produced
by the plants is eaten by plant eating animals, usually called ‘herbivores’, like deer,
cattle, goats, elephants etc. Other animals like dogs, cats, fishes, birds, tigers etc.
eat the flesh of herbivorous animals and, in this way, are indirectly dependent upon
plants. Bacteria and fungi help in decomposition of dead trees and animals and
breaking them down into organic compounds which the plants draw upon for their
growth. Thus, the cycle of life goes on.
Any disturbance in this cycle can create what is called an ‘ecological crisis’.
For example, if a particular species which feeds upon a particular kind of plant is
exterminated, it would result in unchecked growth of that plant. It may grow so
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51

much that it may intrude into the area where other plants grow and disturb their
growth.
Another example of disturbance is mixing of poisonous substances into air,
water or soil. Many industries use chemicals and metals which flow into the streams
and rivers. This leads to an increase in the level of such chemicals in the water.
These chemicals and metals like mercury are consumed by microorganisms in
water, and in turn, become the food of a large number of fishes. When human
beings consume these fishes, they too absorb some amount of mercury which is
detrimental to their health.
Let us look at another example. Vultures feed upon dead animals like cattle.
Vultures eating dead carcass used to be a common sight in villages and towns some
twenty years ago. However, people started noticing that vultures have virtually
disappeared and are sighted very rarely. Investigations suggest that farmers use a
particular chemical called Diclofenac to treat cattle. When the cattle die, their
flesh retains this chemical. When their flesh is consumed by vultures, diclofenac
leads to kidney failure in them and they die within a week or so. In this way, vultures
have come very close to extinction.
Since all living and non-living things on the earth are, in one way or the other,
connected to each other, changes affecting one, in due time affect all others too.

Natural Vegetation
Natural vegetation is generally classified into three broad categories: forests
in areas with sufficient rainfall and sunshine; grasslands in regions with moderate
rains; and shrubs in dry regions. In very cold regions, we have tundra vegetation
consisting of small shrubs, moss and lichens. Let us study some of these in greater
detail.
As you may remember, there are different kinds of forests, depending upon
the climate of the place.

Tropical Evergreen Forests
These forests are also called
tropical rainforests. These thick
forests are found in the regions near
the equator and close to the tropics.
These regions are hot and receive
heavy rainfall throughout the year. As
there is no particular dry season, the
trees do not shed their leaves
altogether. This is the reason they are
called evergreen. The thick canopies
of the closely spaced trees do not
allow the sunlight to penetrate inside
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Social Studies

Fig. 5.1: Tropical Evergreen Forests
Biosphere

the forest even in the day time.
Hard wood trees like rosewood,
ebony, mahogany are common
here.

Fig. 5.2: Tropical Deciduous Forests

Tropical Deciduous Forests
Tropical deciduous are the
monsoon forests found in large
parts of India, northern Australia
and in central America (Fig.
5.2).These regions experience
seasonal changes. Trees shed their
leaves in the dry season to
conserve water. The hard wood
trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham. Hard wood trees are
extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials. Tigers,
lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are the animals commonly found in these
regions.
Temperate Evergreen Forests
The temperate evergreen forests are
located in the mid latitudinal coastal region
(Fig. 5.3). They are commonly found along
the eastern margin of the continents, for
example, in South East USA, South China
and in South East Brazil. They comprise
of both hard and soft wood trees like oak,
pine, eucalyptus etc.
Fig. 5.3: Temperate Evergreen Forests

Temperate Deciduous Forests
As we go towards higher latitudes, there
are more temperate deciduous forests (Fig.
5.4). These are found in the North Eastern
part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile as
well as in the coastal regions of Western
Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry
season. The common trees are oak, ash,
beech, birch etc. Deer, foxes, wolves are
the commonly found animals. Birds like
pheasants, monals are also found here.
Fig. 5.4: Temperate deciduous forests
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53

Mediterranean Vegetation
You have learnt that most of
the east and north east margins
of the continents are covered by
temperate evergreen and
deciduous trees. The west and
south west margins of the
continents are different. They
have Mediterranean vegetation.
Mediterranean trees adapt
themselves to dry summers with
the help of their thick barks and
wax coated leaves which help
them reduce transpiration. These
Fig. 5.5: Mediterranean vegetation
are mostly found in the areas
around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia, hence the name. This
kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in
California in the USA, south west Africa, south western and South America and
South west Australia. These regions are marked by hot dry summers and wet winters.
Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here
because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to take up agriculture.
There isn’t much wildlife here.
Coniferous Forests
In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of the Northern hemisphere, the spectacular
Coniferous forests are found (Fig.5.6). These are also called as Taiga. These forests
are also seen in the higher
altitudes. These trees are found
in the Himalayas in abundance.
They are tall, softwood, evergreen
trees. These woods are very
useful for making pulp, which is
used for manufacturing paper and
newsprint. Match boxes and
packing boxes are also made
from softwood. Chir, pine, cedar
are the important trees in these
forests. Silver fox, mink, polar
bear are the animals commonly
found here.
Fig. 5.6: Coniferous forests
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Biosphere

Look around in your surroundings and find
articles made of hard wood and soft wood.

Grasslands

Tropical grasslands: These
Find out and learn the names of a few trees grass lands grow on either side
of the equator and extend to the
found in your locality.
tropics (Fig. 5.7). This vegetation
grows in areas of moderate to
low rainfall. The grasses grow
very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in
height, for example, Savannah
grasslands of Africa. Elephants,
zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards
are common in tropical
grasslands.
Temperate grasslands:
These are found in the midFig. 5.7: Tropical grasslands
latitudinal zones and in the
interior part of the continents
(Fig. 5.8). Usually, grass here is
short and nutritious. Wild
buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are
common in the temperate region.
These are known as Steppes in
Eurasia.
Thorny bushes: These are
found in the dry desert like
regions. Tropical deserts are
located on the western margins
of the continents. The vegetation
Fig. 5.8: Temperate grasslands
cover is scarce here because of
scanty rain and scorching heat.
Identify the desert regions in the world map.
Tundra Vegetation: If you
reach the polar region, you will find the place extremely cold. The growth of natural
vegetation is very limited here. Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are
found here. These grow during the very short summer. This is called Tundra type
of vegetation. This vegetation is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North
America. The animals have a thick fur and thick skin to protect themselves from
the cold climatic conditions. Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear
and snow foxes are some of the animals found here.
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55

Human Society and Environment
Down the ages, human societies have been interacting with the environment
and in this process, changing it. Hunters and gatherers used stone tools and tools
made of wood etc. to hunt animals and gather tubers and fruits. They learnt to use
fire – by lighting sticks and grass – the first source of energy to be used. Thus
began the tale of human endeavour to alter the environment to satisfy their needs.
Human beings also began investigating into the nature of the environment around
them in order to be able to change and use them for their purposes. Thus, the
building of knowledge of the environment is an essential part of human beings’
interaction with the natural world.
When human beings began to practise agriculture and animal husbandry, they
began to change their environment even more. The building of cities and the use of
metals like bronze and iron further changed human interaction with the environment.
Before long, people began building tanks to store water, canals to divert water to
fields, and even dams across streams and rivers.
People also built roads to connect distant places and sailed in ships and boats
across seas and oceans. In this way, human societies established themselves not
only on every continent (except the Antarctic) but over the seas and oceans too.
Gradually, human population grew so much so that human beings became the
dominant species on earth. It is estimated that during BC 10,000 i.e., the time
when cultivation started, the total population of human beings worldwide was about
40 lakhs. It reached to 50 crores in 1750;100 crores in 1800; 250 crores during
1950 and to 700 crores during 2010. It is estimated to reach 1000 crores by 2100.
This increase in population creates great pressure on the earth as well as its
resources. This means that almost the entire earth would need to be reshaped to
suit the needs of humans.
Can you imagine how human beings would
This process of reshaping the
have impacted the land, water, plants and
surface of the earth received a great
animals around them when they began
push with the industrial revolution
agriculture and animal herding?
and the process of colonisation.
Industrial production needs raw
materials on an unprecedented scale
and industrial countries began to
search for diverse kinds of raw
material and sources of energy all
over the globe. They ‘explored’ the
world and made inventories of all the
possible resources. They dug deep
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Social Studies

What sources of energy would they have
used and how would they have obtained
them?
Can you think of the kinds of changes
would building of cities have on the land
and water around them?
In what way do you think would this have
affected the landscape and water cycle?
Biosphere

wells and tried to find out what lay underneath and also explored the space high
above in the atmosphere. Soon, systematic mining, cutting of forests, building of
factories and fields and roads took place all over the earth. Nations began to wage
wars with each other to gain control over these resources.
Such intense human industrial activity has profound impact on the air, water
and the land around us. Let us try to think of some of these.

Industries – Pollutants and Effluents
Modern industries and transport systems use immense amount of energy which
is derived basically from coal and petroleum (which are called fossil fuels as they
are the remains of forests buried underground lakhs of years ago). The burning of
fossil fuels releases large quantities of carbon dioxide and other chemical gases
like nitrogen oxides, sulpher dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.
They also release sulphuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which cause what are called
‘acid rains’. Acid rains are caused by the mingling of acidic particles of the
atmosphere with the rain by increasing the acid content of rain water.

KYOTO PROTOCOL
A conference was held by United Nations
Organization in the city of Kyoto in Japan in
December 1997 to protect mother earth
from global warming. The countries that
attended realised the effect of Green House
Gases and signed a declaration called Kyoto
Protocol. The main aim of this declaration is
to bring down the release of Green House
Gases to less than 5.2%. According to this
declaration, this aim should have been
achieved between 2008-2012.

In addition to burning of fossil fuels,
modern industries release enormous
amounts of waste materials in the form
of solid, liquid and gaseous waste
contaminating air, water (both surface
water like rivers and underground water
of wells) and soil.
The cumulative impact of such
pollution is gradual poisoning of our
environment. One important impact is the
change in worldwide climate also known
as ‘global warming’. We will read about
this in detail in Class IX biological
science book in Chapter X.

Depletion of Resources
Industrialisation, rapid growth of population and urbanisation have all led to
unprecedented exploitation of natural resources like minerals, forests, soil, water,
air etc. as well as the sources of energy (coal, petroleum etc.) stored in the earth
for billions of years. This has resulted in rapid deforestation and decline of reserves
of minerals, oil and groundwater. Many scientists have argued that the present way
of life is not ‘sustainable’ for life. If we use such large quantities of natural resources,
nothing will be left for our children and grand children.
All the living beings on the earth depend on the environment and have to live
according to the environment. But, for their enjoyment and development, human
beings are destroying nature. The commercial activities carried on by human beings
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57

are affecting every life and every matter on
Do You Know?
the earth. If there continue like this, it is
dangerous not only to animals but also to 1. Approximately 13-15 tonnes of effluents
human beings themselves.
and sewage water reach Kolleru lake daily
from its nearby towns and villages.
Key words
2. One study found that the radiation
1. Food chain
released by cell phone towers affects the
2. Hard wood trees
life of honey bees. This leads not only to
3. Acid rains
scarcity of honey but also affects
pollination, bio diversity and agricultural
4. Ecological crisis
products.
5. Tundra

Improve your learning
1. Life itself constitutes a seperate sphere called ‘Biosphere’. Explain. (AS1)
2. Why is ecological crisis created in modern times? What are its effects? (AS4)
3. Natural vegetation depends upon the climate of the place. Write about the different
kinds of forests and climatic conditions of their existence? (AS1)
4. How can we protect natural resources? (AS6)
5. Read the chapter and fill up the table (AS3)
S. No.

Type of forest

Spread across the countries

Trees grown

Animals

6. Locate the following countries in the world map. (AS5)
a) New Zealand
b) Brazil
c) Australia
d) North America
e) China
f) India
7. Read the paragraph under the title ‘Depletion of Resources’ on page 57 and comment
on it. (AS2)

Discussion: Collect information with regard to the animals/birds extinction. Fill up
this table and discuss in classroom.
Sl. Name of the
No. animal/bird

Extinct

Being
Extincted

Reasons
For
Extinction

Result

Preventive
measures/our
responsibility

Project
Visit any nearby industrial establishment and observe the different kinds of smoke,
liquid and solid wastes come out of the compound. Find out from the residents of
that locality about their impact on plants and animals. Based on the information
collected, prepare a report and present it in the class.
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Biosphere

Agriculture in India

CHAPTER

6

Types of Farming
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in our country. Over the years,
cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics
of physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices.
At present the following farming systems are practised in different parts of India.

Subsistence Farming - This type of farming is alone in two forms. They are :
Simple Subsistence Farming and Intensive Subsistensive Farming.
1. Simple Subsistence Farming: Agriculture is practised on small patches
of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks through
family/community labour.
This type of farming depends
upon monsoon, natural
fertility of the soil and
suitability
of
other
environmental conditions to
the crops grown. It is a ‘slash
and burn’ method of
agriculture
(Shifting
agriculture). You have read
about it in the previous
classes.
2. Intensive Subsistence
Farming: It is practised in
Name some of the states of areas with high population density on land. It is
India where “slash and labour intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for
burning” farming is practised?
obtaining higher production.
Commercial Farming: The main characteristic of this type of farming is
the use of higher doses of modern inputs, for example High Yielding Variety
(HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain
higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from
Fig. 6.1: Preparation of land for agriculture.

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59

one region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and
Punjab, but in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop. Plantation is also a type of
commercial farming. In this type of
Give some more examples of crops which
farming, a single crop is grown on a
may be commercial in one region and may
large area. In India, tea, coffee, rubber,
provide subsistence in another region?
sugarcane, banana, etc. are important
plantation crops.

Cropping Seasons
Agricultural crops depend on seasons and natural resources such as soil, water
and sunshine for cultivation. Temperature and humidity conditions are important.
Some crops can be cultivated only in specific seasons regardless of the availability
of water and other inputs. Therefore, in any region, different crops are grown in
different seasons.
India has three cropping seasons – rabi, kharif and zaid.
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from April to June.
Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate
cyclones helps in the success of these crops. However, the success of the green
revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has
also been an important factor in the growth of the above mentioned rabi crops.
Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the
country and these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown
during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, red gram, green gram, black gram,
urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
Look at the map of major
In between the rabi and the kharif
paddy producing states
seasons, there is a short season during the
at the end of the chapter
and shade them.
summer months known as the Zaid season.
Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’
are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber,
vegetables and fodder crops.

Major Crops
A variety of food and non food crops
are grown in different parts of the country
depending upon the variations in soil,
climate and cultivation practices. Major
crops grown in India are paddy, wheat,
millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil
seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
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Paddy : It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. Our
country is the second largest producer of paddy in the world after China. It is a
kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with
annual rainfall above 100 cm. In areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of
irrigation. Paddy is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal
areas and the deltaic regions. Development of dense networks of canal irrigation
and tubewells has made it possible to grow rice even in areas with less rainfall such
as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat: This is the second most important cereal crop. It is the main food crop
in north and north-western part of the country. This rabi crop requires a cool growing
season and a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of
annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. There are two important
wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and
black soil region of the Deccan. The major wheat-producing states are Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
Maize: It is a crop which is
High Yielding Varieties
used both as food and fodder. It is
High Yielding Varieties of seeds and fertilizers are the a kharif crop which requires
key elements of new agriculture technologies. The HYVs temperature between 21°C to
seeds grow well when fertilizers and water are used; 27°C and grows well in old alluvial
they have larger amounts of grain and shorter stalks soil. In some states like Bihar
and a short period maturity in most cases. The short maize is grown in rabi season also.
period maturity also enables double cropping - farmers Use of modern inputs such as HYV
can use their lands more than once in a year.
seeds, fertilisers and irrigation
This policy was initially implemented in Punjab, have contributed to the increasing
Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and in some districts production of maize. Major
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The HYV seeds maize-producing states are
require a lot of water and these areas are already Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
irrigated. The new variety of wheat is grown in Punjab, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, while rice is Madhya Pradesh.
grown in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi
are the important millets grown in India. Though these are known as coarse grains,
they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium,
other micro nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third most important food crop
with respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist
areas which hardly needs irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar
followed by Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Bajra grows
well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of
bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is a crop
of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu.
Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the
world. These are the main source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses that
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61

are grown in India are red gram, black gram , green gram, masur, peas and bengal
gram. Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions. Being
leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by
fixing nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with
other crops. Major pulse producing
Which of these pulses are grown in
states in India are Madhya Pradesh,
the kharif season and which are grown
Uttar
Pradesh,
Rajasthan,
in the rabi season?
Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot
and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall
between 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation is required in regions with low rainfall. It
can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil. It is the main source
of sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing
states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different oil
seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of
the country. Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums. However,
some of these are also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics
and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds
produced in the country. Telangana, Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of
groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Linseed
and mustard are rabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south
India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.
Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially
by the British. Today, most of the tea
plantations are owned by Indians. The tea
plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical
climates endowed with deep and fertile
well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic
matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist
frost-free climate all through the year.
Frequent showers evenly distributed over
the year ensure continuous growth of tender
leaves. Tea is a labour intensive industry. It
requires abundant and skilled labour. Tea
Fig 6.2 Tea plantation
is processed within the tea garden to
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restore its freshness. Major tea producing states are in the hill regions of Assom,
West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. India is one of the leading producer as well
as exporter of tea in the world.
Coffee: India produces about four per cent of the world’s coffee production.
Indian coffee is known in the world for its
good quality. The Arabica variety initially
brought from Yemen is produced in the
country. This variety is in great demand all
over the world. Intially, its cultivation was
introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even
today, its cultivation is confined to the
Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops: India is one of
the leading producers of fruits and
vegetables in the world. Tropical and
Fig 6.3 Coffee plant
temperate fruits like mangoes of
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; oranges
of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya); bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu; lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; pineapples
of Meghalaya; grapes of Telangana & Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra; apples,
pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in
great demand the world over.
India produces about 1/6 of the world’s vegetables. It is an important producer
of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

Non-Food Crops
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown
in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall
of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C. Rubber is an important
industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India is among the
world’s leading natural rubber producers.
Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, and natural silk are the three major fibre crops
grown in India. The first two are derived from the crops grown in the soil, the
latter is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as
sericulture.
Cotton: India is believed to be the original home of cotton plant. Cotton is
one of the main raw materials for cotton textile industry. India is the third-largest
producer of cotton in the world. Cotton grows well in drier parts with black cotton
soil in the Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation,
210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It is a kharif crop and
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63

requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile
soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year. High temperature is
required during the growth period. West Bengal, Bihar, Assom, Odisha and
Meghalaya are the major jute producing states. It is used in making gunny bags,
mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its high cost, it is losing market
to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly nylon. However, in the recent
times, the market or ecofriendly jute has been growing.
The following table shows some of the details of different crops and the important
states which produce them. Not all the information is given. Refer an atlas and
discuss with your teacher to complete the information in the table.
Mark each crop using a particular (•,!, #,!) symbol in a (political) map of India
and discuss the reasons for which only those states account for major share in the
production of specific crops.
Sl.
No.

Crop

1

Paddy

2

Wheat

3

Millets and other
cereals

4

Maize

5

Pulses

6

Sugarcane

7

Oil seeds

8

Cotton

64

Top states in 2011 and how much
they contributed to total grains
production (in % to total)

Reasons, both natural and
other factors, that account for
major share of production

West Bengal (16), Punjab (13),
Uttar Pradesh (12),
Telangana & Andhra Pradesh (12)
Odisha (8)
Uttar Pradesh (34), Punjab (19),
Haryana (13), Madhya Pradesh (10)
Rajasthan (9)
Maharashtra (19), Karnataka (18),
Rajasthan (12), Telangana & Andhra
Pradesh (10), Uttar Pradesh (9)
Karnataka (18), Telangana & Andhra
Pradesh (17), Maharashtra (11), Bihar (9)
Madhya Pradesh (29), Maharashtra (16),
Uttar Pradesh (13),
Telangana & Andhra Pradesh (10),
Karnataka (8)
Uttar Pradesh (40), Maharashtra (22),
Karnataka (10), Tamil Nadu (10)
Madhya Pradesh (31), Rajasthan (18),
Gujarat (13), Maharashtra (11) and
Telangana & Andhra Pradesh (6)
Gujarat (33), Maharashtra (24),
Telangana & Andhra Pradesh (13),
Punjab (8) Haryana (8)

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Importance of Agriculture

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

In this section, we shall look at agriculture from an overall view for the entire
country. We would read about the changes that have taken place since the time of
Independence to the present day and the challenges that we face today.
The food security of a nation depends on agriculture. A variety of raw materials
required for industries are cultivated on farms. Wheat, paddy and other food crops
are cultivated by farmers. Agriculture is a major source of livelihood for millions
- giving employment to a large section of people.
More than half of the population of workers in India is working in the agriculture
sector and its related activities. Between men and women, it is the women who get
more employment opportunities in agriculture. Nearly 70 per cent of the working
women are engaged in agriculture.
Two kinds of people are engaged in farming – agricultural labourers and
cultivators. Cultivators are those farmers who have some land of their own and
also use land belonging to others for cultivation. Agriculture labourers are those
who are landless
Cultivators and Agricultural Labourers
labourers who work
in 1961-2011 (%)
on other’s lands.
Since population
24
45
40
?
38
38
also increases with
time, we look at the
absolute numbers,
76
62
?
60
the number of people
54
55
working in agriculture increased
from 97 million in
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
1951 to 234 million
Cultivators
Agricultural labourers
in 2001. Hence, the
number of agricultural labourers who are seeking a livelihood in rural areas has increased, given
the fact that they have very little or no land to cultivate. What are the other alternative
job opportunities available to them? This is a serious challenge.
Complete the bar diagram above and find out the percentage of cultivators and
agricultural labourers in 1981 and 2001 respectively.
Discuss the difference between self employment and looking for work using
examples from your region.
Do you think that some families who were earlier cultivators are becoming
agricultural labourers now? Discuss.
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65

Indian farmers are mostly small landholders
One distinct feature of Indian agriculture is the small land holdings. Most
farmers work with only a small plot of land. Look at the following table.
Table 1: Number of farmers and land they possess in India (2010-2011)
Type and amount of land
operated by farmers

Number of
How much land
Farmers
they operate with?
Number %
Land in lakhs
(lakhs)
acres
Marginal
up to 2.5 acrs
924
?
875
Small
2.6 to 5 acrs
247
?
868
Semi-medium 5.1 to 10 acrs
138
10.0
927
Medium
10.1 to 25 acrs
59
4.3
833
Large
More than 25acrs 10
?
429
Total
1378 100.00
3932

Average amount
of land operated by
farmers (acres)
%
?
?
?
?
?
?

?
?
6.7
14.1
?
?

Complete the data in the table and the explanation in the following passage below.
Majority of farmers operate only small plots of lands. A typical Indian marginal
farmer has only about ..... acres to cultivate. There are 924 lakh farmers so that ....% of
all farmers are marginal. If we add up the number of small and marginal farmers, they
form ...% of all farmers. However, even though in percentage terms medium and large
farmers is small, the number in absolute terms is large. .....lakh farmers can be together
considered to be in this group. They have a powerful voice in rural areas. This group of
large and medium farmers together operate ......% of the land. Each large farmer, for
example, on an average operates ....acres of land. Compare this with each marginal
farmer who operates on an average ....acres of land. This inequality in distribution of
land explains the inequalities in opportunities that they experience, the poverty or
growth opportunity that they face.
In your opinion, what would be the minimum amount of land required to do
viable farming which would give a farmer a decent earning. How many farmers
in the above table are doing viable farming?
Why do only a small section of farmers have a powerful voice?

Agricultural production depends on natural factors
Agricultural crops depend on seasons and natural resources such as soil and
water and sunshine for cultivation. Temperature and rainfall conditions are
important. Some crops can be cultivated only in specific seasons regardless of the
availability of water and other inputs. Therefore, in any region, different crops are
grown in different seasons. When you visit the ‘Santha’, a fruit or vegetable market,
in different seasons you would notice these differences.
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There are also variations in the natural conditions between different regions
in the country.
Besides land reforms such as abolition of Zamindari, Land ceiling Act, the
Indian government has also initiated other important policy changes. These can be
seen in three phases – 1950-1965, 1966-1990 and Post 1991. Each phase signifies
different facets of Indian agriculture.

The First Phase (1950-1965) - Increasing Irrigation and Building
Dams
Between 1950 and 1965, the Indian Government invested heavily on irrigation
and power projects. It was hoped that this would raise crop production and solve
the problem of food shortage. Big dams for irrigation and electricity generation
like Bhakra-Nangal (Himachal Pradesh) Damodar Valley (West Bengal), Hirakund
(Odisha), Nagarjun Sagar (Telangana &Andhra Pradesh), Gandhi Sagar (Madhya
Pradesh) were constructed.
The area under cultivation and the irrigated area both went up and crop
production increased. During this phase, government promoted the formation of
farmer cooperatives and also appointed agricultural extension officers to provide
technical support to farmers. A variety of initiatives, especially for small farmers,
were taken at the mandal or block level through community development
programmes.
Despite these developments, food shortages continued. During 1962-65, India
faced two wars and the government spent a lot of money on the war. There was
very little rain in and these years 1965 and 1966 were declared as drought years.
This led to decline in the production of food grains and forced the government to
import food grains.
This situation of depending on other
In an atlas, find the locations of the
countries for food requirements worried
above mentioned dams and mark them the Indian leaders. The Indian Government
on a map of India. Label the names of began to change the policy towards
the major rivers on which these dams agriculture and this phase was called as
were built.
Green Revolution.

Second Phase (1966-1990) – Green Revolution and its spread
The government introduced new kind of seeds to the Indian soil which were
invented in various agricultural research institutions in India as well as other
countries. This marked the second phase of agricultural development. These new
seeds are known as High Yielding Varieties. It was also accompanied by the use of
chemical fertilizers, machinery such as tractors and others besides irrigation
facilities. A variety of cooperative banks were set up in rural areas to provide
credit to farmers so that they could buy raw materials such as seeds, fertilizer and
pesticides and machinery required for modern farming.
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67

Dryland Agriculture
A little over 40% of the total cultivable land in India is irrigated. This percentage
can only go up to a maximum of 55%. The remaining 45% cannot be easily irrigated
- it would be very difficult and expensive. Thus, these areas must depend solely on
rainfall. These are the drylands in our country.
Some of the main crops grown in these areas are jowar, bajra, groundnut, ragi,
cotton, soyabean, red gram and bengal gram.
Dryland areas are most suitable for certain crops. For example, 84% of the
pulses grown in the entire country are from these areas. However, the production
of pulses is not increasing and they are becoming more and more expensive.
What should then be done to increase production in such dryland areas? Unlike
the cultivation of HYVs in irrigated lands, dryland farming poses different
challenges. Conserving rainfall that the area receives is the first step. There are
several ways in which people can stop rain water from quickly running off, so that
it can soak into the ground and recharge the ground water. This is done through
watershed development programmes which include afforestation, bunding, building
check-dams and tanks. Also, fertility of the soil needs to be raised by adding organic
material (compost and manure).
Farmers who grow crops like bengal gram, red gram,bajra, jowar ,ragi, soyabean,
groundnut, and cotton also need support. They may need new varieties of seeds
suitable for different regions, knowledge
In which areas were the new methods
about the best ways of growing a mix of
of agriculture first tried? Why was
crops on the same land, loans to purchase
the whole country not covered?
inputs, support prices for these crops etc.
Farming of HYVs has now been adopted in
Why are different methods necessary
dryland regions too.
for dryland areas?

The Effects of the Green Revolution
Increase in Production
The spread of HYVs to large parts of the country and to newer crops has led to
a significant increase in crop production in the country. India has become selfsufficient in food grains.
Due to the rise in food grains production, it was no longer necessary to import
food grains from other countries. Today, food materials constitute only about three
per cent of India’s imports (Bar Diagram). The production of food grains has
increased five times over the last five decades - from 51 to 242 million tonnes.
A large stock of food grains has also built up with the government through
Food Corporation of India (FCI) that can be used in case of shortage and can avoid
drought or famine-like situations in the country. The procurement of food grains is
also used to supply food grains to inaccessible areas. In the year 1967, the total
food grain stock with the government was only 19 lakh tonnes. By the year
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2010-11, it increased to
220 lakh tonnes, about
one tenth of total food
grains produced in India.
Green revolution
helped the farmers to
produce higher quantities
of foodgrains and nonfoodgrains on the same
plot of land. There was no
major increase in the land
used for cultivation. In
1960s, a farmer was able
to produce an average of
only 287 kilograms of
foodgrains, be it paddy or
wheat, on one acre of
cultivable land. Today, the same farmer is able
to produce nearly 800 kilograms of foodgrains
per acre of cultivable land.
Environmental Effects
The Green Revolution has also brought
several environmental imbalances. As
mentioned earlier, it was first introduced in
the northern states of Punjab, Haryana and
parts of Uttar Pradesh. We shall study some
of the environmental problems faced by these
areas.

Bar Diagram 1 : Production of food grains (in million tonnes)

How increase in buffer stock
would help to avoid situations of
drought and famines?
How farmers were able to raise
higher amount of food grains on
the same plot of land over the
years?
In which decades the food grains
yields grow fast? What could be
probable reasons for this?

Water problems
In these states, most farmers have shifted to cultivation of HYVs of rice and
wheat which require plenty of water. The main source of irrigation in these states
is tubewells that draw groundwater. As the number of tubewells increased over the
years, the groundwater level fell rapidly. Groundwater level can be maintained as
long as the use of groundwater is less than the groundwater recharge. Groundwater
recharge is a natural process and happens each year through rainfall or flows from
canals, streams and rivers. Water from these sources slowly flows through the
various soil layers and collects as groundwater. The problem starts when the
groundwater use through tubewells etc. is more than the groundwater recharge. In
other words, what is used up is more than what flows into the groundwater pool, so
that the level of groundwater of an area falls. A fall in groundwater level would
mean that less groundwater is available for future use.
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69

This problem of falling ground
water level is faced by 10 out of 12
districts of Punjab and 9 out of 12
districts of Haryana. Experts fear that
agriculture in Punjab could be in danger
due to environmental damage over the
past three decades.

Groundwater recharge

Fertilizer Problems
Manure and compost contain
humus and living organisms that slowly
release minerals as they decompose.
Chemical fertilizers provide minerals
(usually nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which dissolve in water and are
immediately available to plants, but may not be retained in the soil for long. They
may be leached from the soil and pollute groundwater, rivers, and lakes. Chemical
fertilizers (as well as pesticides) can also kill bacteria and other organisms in the
soil. This means that after some time of repeated use, the soil will be less fertile
than ever before. Without micro-organisms, the soil will be dependent on frequent
addition of more and more chemical fertilizers. The variety of nutrients which are
normally produced by micro-organisms may also be reduced. Thus, in many areas,
the Green Revolution has actually resulted in a loss of soil fertility and everincreasing costs to farmers.
Environmental resources like soil fertility
What is fertile soil?
and groundwater are built up over many-many To be fertile, soil has to provide the right
years. Once destroyed it is very difficult to amounts of water, minerals, and air to the
restore them. Similar environmental roots of plants. To do this, it must have the
imbalances are being faced by other regions correct texture and the correct
with large-scale use of HYVs. Given that composition. Soil is composed of mineral
agriculture is heavily dependent on natural particles (which come from the breakdown
resources, how do we take care of the of rocks) as well as organic components
environment to ensure future development of (which are or have come from living
agriculture? This is a complex question which organisms). To be available to roots, the
minerals must be dissolved in the water.
is currently being debated.

Third Phase (1990s to the present) – Post Reform Agriculture
From 1967 to 1991, Indian farmers sold their produce to markets within the
country and to the government through the FCI. People were also dependent on
markets within the country for their food purchases. Foreign trade in farm products
was not allowed. Export of most farm products, especially foodgrains, was banned.
Imports were also not allowed. It was only the government that had the right to
import from products in case of scarcity.
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We have also seen that the government supported farmers through the supply
Why did not the Indian government of cheap farm inputs and by offering to buy
allow farmers to export foodgrains farm products at minimum support prices.
Thus, the Indian farmers produced only for
during the Green Revolution?
Why should government ban exports / markets within the country and required
import? How does this policy help government’s support to earn a reasonable
income from farming.
Indian farmers?

Foreign Trade in Farm Products
As pointed out earlier, government took many protective measures in agriculture
prior to 1991. However, there has been a significant change in the agriculture policy in
India. Farm products are exported from and imported into India more than in the past.
Changes in farm trade policy are not taking place in India alone. Many developing
countries in Asia, Africa and South America have made similar changes in the
policies. This is because the developed countries are putting pressure on them to
allow foreign trade. These developed countries want to sell their surplus farm
products in the developing countries that have a large number of buyers.
With the foreign trade policy changes, many crops can now be traded. For
instance, farmers can now export vegetables and fruits, sugar and jaggery. Similarly,
import of cotton, rubber, pulses, oilseeds are freely allowed. However, farmers
cannot export food grains. Since food grains are the most important food item, the
Indian government has been cautious to allow trade in food grains. Only the
government can do so, if it wishes.
Organic Farming – The experience of a farmer in Odisha

In order to overcome the ill effects of Green Revolution, farmers in India have begun to
adopt different farming practices. Let us look at an example. Aged 80, Natwarbhai is a
resident of Narishu village, near Niali in Cuttack district, Odisha. A retired school teacher,
he has been practising organic farming for the last decade or so, and swears by its potential
to feed India’s population. He says some of the varieties he grows yield over 20 quintals per
acre, higher than the so-called ‘high-yielding’ varieties that farmers around him get after
using chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Infact he spends much less on his crops since his
main inputs are gobar, natural pesticides when occasionally needed and family labour.
Natwarbhai was earlier a ‘modern’ farmer. One day, while watching a labourer spray
Carbofuran (a highly toxic pesticide), he was horrified to see him stagger and collapse.
The worker was rushed for treatment. He survived but not Natwarbhai’s faith in the new
agriculture was lost. Especially after the labourer told him: “I could not breathe, my head
was reeling”; and especially after, having buried the remaining stock of Carbofuran in a
pit in his fields, Natwarbhai “saw dead snails, snakes, and frogs floating in the water that
had accumulated there. “I immediately wondered what would be happening to the
earthworms and micro-organisms that I knew kept the soil alive.”
Natwarbhai switched to organic inputs, but with the high yielding varieties that the
agricultural department provided. On the advise of the son, Rajendra, started cultivating
traditional varieties. But such traditional varieties are rarely cultivated Now a days. It
posed a big problem.
In 1999, he started his journey to search for traditional varieties of paddy seeds. He
travelled all over Odisha, and a little outside, about 5,000 kms. He collected dozzens of
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71

traditional varieties of seeds from the areas termed as backward. He tried cultivating them
all, noting down their names, characteristics and productivity.
Source: Adapted from Ashish Kothari, A New Rice Every day? The Hindu, December 9, 2012.

Can organic farming produce enough food for all?
How is organic farming especially suited for small and marginal farmers? Discuss.
The developed countries are however constantly putting pressure on India to
allow greater imports of crops produced in their countries.
Foreign trade could cause farmers income to fluctuate. In certain years and
for certain crops the farmers might gain from exports. In other years, farmers
could lose because of cheap imports and fall in prices of farm products. Small
farmers without much savings will not be able to bear this loss. They will get
caught in debt trap and become poorer. The government has to be very careful in
allowing trade in farm products.

Why does Government buy and store some grain?

A lot of grain comes into the market at the time of harvest. One problem that farmers
face is lower price of grain during this time. This means farmers are not able to sell
grain at a high enough price to be able to repay their loans and continue using the
new farming methods. They need to be protected from traders who might try to
purchase the grains at low prices.
Therefore, the government has decided to set a Minimum Support Price (MSP). A
Minimum Support Price is a price at which the farmers can sell their grain if they want
to the government. The government sets the MSP so as to cover the cost of cultivation
and allow a little bit of profit to the farmer. Because of the MSP, farmers are not forced
to sell their grains at cheaper prices to the traders.
The Food Corporation of India (FCI) was formed by the government to purchase food
grains from the farmers and store them. It keeps stockpiles and supplies grain to
ration shops and other government schemes (e.g. for midday meals in schools).

Key words
1. Chemical fertiliser
4. Dryland agriculture

2. Green revolution
3. Organic material
5. Modern farming practices 6. Foreign trade policy

Improve your learning
1. Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions required
for its growth. (AS1)
2. The land under cultivation has been reducing day by day. Can you imagine its
consequences? (AS4)
3. On an outline map of India, show the millet producing areas. (AS5)
4. What is a Minimum Support Price (MSP)? Why is a MSP needed? (AS1)
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5. Explain all the ways in which the Indian government supported the Green
Revolution.(AS1)
6. Do you think it is important for India to be self-sufficient in food grains
production? Discuss. (AS6)
7. How is dry land agriculture different from agriculture in other areas? (AS1)
8. Can you recall incidents such as pesticides being found in soft drinks? How is
this related to the use of pesticides? Discuss. (AS4)
9. Why are chemical fertilizers used in new farming methods? How could use of
fertilizers make soil less fertile? What are the alternative ways of enriching
soil? (AS1)
10. How has the Green Revolution in some areas resulted in short-term gains but
long- term losses to farmers? (AS1)
11. What could be the effects
of foreign trade on
farmers’ income? (AS1)
12. In earlier classes, we had
studied about land
distribution. How does the
following image reflect
this idea. Write a paragraph
about this in the context of
Indian agriculture. (AS1)
13. Read the paragraph under
the title ‘Fertilizer Problems’ on page 70 and comment on it. (AS2)
14. Observe the map given in the page 74 and locate the States where paddy is grown
in the outline map of India. (AS5)

Discussion:
Do you feel that the farmers who cultivate are happy ? If not, What are the
reasons? What are the factors that affect agriculture ?

Debate: In agriculture, whether it is to be followed organic or chemical fertilizers and
pesticides? Conduct a debate in classroom keeping the population increase in mind.

Project
Which crops are grown in your area? Which of these are grown from HYV seeds
and which ones are grown from traditional seeds? Compare the HYV seeds and the
traditional seeds with regard to each of the following points:
(a) duration of crop
(b) number of times irrigated
(c) production
(d) fertilisers
(e) diseases
(f ) pesticides
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73

Map - 1 Paddy producing states in India

74

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CHAPTER

Industries in India

7

PART - I
Basic necessities for setting up factories
Industries are an essential part of a nation’s development. You may recall what
you studied in class VII about various kinds of manufacturing processes. The story
of the paper industry was one example. You would have noticed how factories work
and about the process of manufacturing whether at home, in a small shed or in a
large factory. In this chapter, we will learn about how Indian industries have grown
over the years and the role of government initiatives in promoting industries.
India’s main industrial activity for a long time was handicrafts, particularly textile
goods. Under the colonial rule, barring a few industries, India could not develop a
sound industrial base. It did not have the capacity to produce a wide range of goods.
Most industrial products had to be imported. After 1947, India began many initiatives
to promote industrial activities in the country. One important driving force behind
this idea was to become self sufficient in meeting our needs and to make the country
an industrially developed nation.
For factories, you need machines. A modern factory manufacturing cloth, for
instance, would use loom that runs on electricity as compared to hand looms. These
looms produce a large quantity of cloth in a short time. Similarly, there are complex
machines that produce cement, cars, edible oils etc. To run these machines, all
factories require a source of power which is usually electricity. Hence, factories
require machines and electricity to run them.
Further, all factories need raw materials from which goods can be produced.
For example, steel is required to produce cycles. There are some factories which
produce steel sheets from iron and coal. Other factories use these sheets to
manufacture steel tubes. Finally, the cycle factory uses these steel tubes to
manufacture the steel frame for the cycle. Note that the basic sources of steel are
raw materials like iron and coal. As in the above example, minerals and ores form
the basic source from which various raw materials required by factories are produced.
A large number of goods are produced by factories that are used by other
factories. These are intermediate steps in the chain of production by many factories
before we can get consumer goods that are directly used by people.
Transportation is needed to bring raw materials to factories and transfer finished
goods from them. Trucks, railways, and ships are the various means of transport.
For this, you require some essential facilities such as: a system of roads which are
Free distribution by T.S. Government

75

in good condition and which
link a large number of towns
and villages in the country; a
Iron is the basic requirement for a large system of transporting
number of goods produced by various material by rail ; ports which
factories. Explain this with examples that can accommodate a large
you see around.
number of ships and also
Have you seen machines used in a factory? organize the loading and
Make a collage of different kinds of unloading from them.
Hence, for industriali machines that are used.
Make a chart to show how petroleum is the sation, i.e. to develop a large
basic requirement for a large number of number of different
factories, we have certain
products.
basic requirements like
Discuss what is meant by the word `basic'. machines, electricity,
What are the basic necessities for minerals and ores, and
industries?
transport facilities.
At the time of independence, what were the
Factories producing
objectives that were desired to be achieved these essential goods machines, electricity,
through industrialization?
minerals and ores, and
transport facilities - are basic industries. Basic industries produce essential goods
that can form a base to support a large variety of factories.
Can you make a list of the products that are
produced by factories for other factories?

Industrial Location
Industrial locations are complex in nature. These are influenced by availability
of raw material, labour, capital, power and market etc. It is rarely possible to find
all these factors available at one place. Consequently, manufacturing activity tends
to be located at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location
are either available or can be arranged at lower cost. After an industrial activity
starts, urbanisation follows. Sometimes, industries are located in or near the cities.
Thus, industrialisation and urbanisation go hand in hand. Cities provide markets as
well as services such as banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants and
financial advice etc. to the industry. Many industries tend to come together to make
use of the advantages offered by the urban centres known as agglomeration
economies. Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place. In the preIndependence period, most manufacturing units were located in cities from the
point of view of overseas trade such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai etc. Consequently,
there emerged certain pockets of industrially developed urban centres surrounded
by a huge agricultural rural hinterland.
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→

←

Market

Inputs Raw materials and
or component parts

Factors of Production: → Transport →

Factory

→ Outputs → Market

Land, labour, capital,
entrepreneur,
infrastructure

Activity

Collect the wrappers of a few tea packets and tooth paste. Read the wrappers
carefully and try to relate to the question below.
________ can be considered as a product of agro based industry. _________
can be considered a product of mineral based industry.
Raw material for the tooth paste _______ and ____________ are produced in
another industry. That industry is called key or basic industry. Whereas the tooth
paste is a consumer goods and the industry producing such goods is called
consumer goods industry.
The ownership of industries could be lying with individuals or groups of
individuals such as _________________ (for the tea packets) and
____________ (tooth paste). Such an industry is called a private sector industry
whereas if the ownership belongs to the government, it will be known as public
sector industry. Two examples of public sector industries are ____________
and ____________.
Some industries are also owned by large number of people who supply raw
materials (milk / sugarcane) or supply their labour (coir) pool their resources to
run them. Such industries is called cooperative industries.

Agro Based Industries
The industries which are based on agricultural products are called agro based
industries.
Textile Industry: The textile industry occupies a unique position in the Indian
economy because it contributes significantly to industrial production (14 per cent),
employment generation (35 million persons directly - the second largest after
agriculture) and foreign exchange earnings (about 24.6 per cent). It contributes 4
per cent towards GDP. It is the only industry in the country which is self-reliant
and complete in the value chain i.e. from raw material to the highest value added
products.
Fibre
production

→ Spinning

→ Raw Fibre

→

→ Yarn

Weaving
Knitting

→ Fabric

→

Dyeing and
Finishing

→

Garment
Manufacture

→ Garments ←

Value addition in the textile industry
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77

Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced using hand spinning
and handloom weaving techniques. After the 18th century, power-looms came into
use. Our traditional industries suffered a setback during the colonial period because
they could not compete with the mill-made cloth from England.
Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and human made fibre textile mills in the
country. About 80 per cent of these are in the private sector and the rest in the
public and cooperative sectors. Apart from these, there are several thousand small
factories with four to ten looms.
In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton
growing belts of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Availability of raw cotton, market,
transport including accessible port facilities, labour, moist climate etc. contributed
towards its localisation. This industry has close links with agriculture and provides
a living to farmers, cotton ball pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning,
weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing. The industry, by creating
demand, supports many other industries such as, chemicals and dyes, mill stores,

Look at the Map of Textile
industry at the end of the
chapter and shade them.

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The first successful textile mill was established packaging materials and
engineering work.
in Mumbai in 1854.
While spinning continues to
When the two world wars were fought in Europe,
India was a British colony. There was a demand be centralised in Maharashtra,
for cloth in U.K. Hence, they gave a boost to the Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
weaving is highly decentralised
development of the cotton textile industry.
to provide scope for
incorporating traditional skills and designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
embroidery etc. India has world class production in spinning, but weaving supplies
low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of the high quality yarn produced in the
country. Weaving is done by handlooms, powerlooms and in mills.
The handspun khadi provides large scale employment to weavers in their homes
Why did Mahatma Gandhi as a cottage industry. India also exports yarn to Japan.
lay emphasis on spinning Other importers of cotton goods from India are U.S.A.,
U.K., Russia, France, East European countries, Nepal,
yarn and weaving khadi?
Singapore, Sri Lanka and African countries.
Jute Textiles: India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at
second place as an exporter of Jute after Bangladesh. There are about 70 jute mills
in India. Most of these are located in West Bengal mainly along the banks of the
Hugli river 98 km long and 3 km wide.
Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are: proximity of the
jute producing areas, inexpensive water transport, supported by a good network of
railways, roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to the
mills, abundant water for processing raw jute, cheap labour from West Bengal and
adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh. Kolkata, as a large urban centre,
provides banking, insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods.
The jute industry supports 2.61 lakh
workers directly and another 40 lakhs
small and marginal farmers who are
engaged in cultivation of jute and mesta.
Many more people are associated
indirectly.
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Challenges faced by the industry include stiff competition in the international
market from synthetic substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh,
Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. However, the internal demand has been on
the increase due to the Government policy of mandatory use of jute packaging. To
stimulate demand, the products need to be diversified. In 2005, National Jute Policy
was formulated with the objective of increasing production, improving quality,
Free distribution by T.S. Government

79

ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare. The
main markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United Arab Emirates, U.K. and Australia.
The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials has
once again opened up the opportunity for jute products.
Sugar Industry: India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the
first place in the production of jaggery and khandsari (The raw material used in this
industry is bulky and in haulage its sucrose content reduces). There are over 460
sugar mills in the country spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Telangana & Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with Punjab, Haryana
and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry
is seasonal in nature so it is ideally suited to
Where should the sugar and
the cooperative sector. Can you explain why
jaggery mills be ideally located?
this is so?
In recent years, there has been tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in
the southern and western states, especially in Maharashtra. This is because the cane
produced here has a higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also ensures a longer
crushing season. Moreover, the cooperatives are more successful in these states.
Major challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient
methods of production, transport delay in transporting cane to factories and the
need to maximise the use of bagasse.

Mineral based Industries
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral based
industries. Can you name some industries that would fall in this category?
The minerals are widespread in Indian
subcontinent based on their geological
Look at the Map of States
structures. The minerals essential for iron and
where minerals are available
at the end of the chapter and
steel industries are located predominantly in
shade them.
Peninsular India.
Therefore, iron and steel plants are also
distributed in the same places as the minerals
are located. The industry is dependent on power
resources which are equally essential for the
operation of industries. Conventional energy
resources of coal, petroleum, gas are also
available in the same regions which further
helps in mineral based localisation of
industries.
Iron and Steel Industry: The iron and steel
industry are the basic industries since all the
other industries-heavy, medium and light,
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depend on them for their machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of
engineering goods, construction material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific
equipment and a variety of consumer goods.
Make a list of all such goods made of steel that you can think of Production and
consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country's development.
Iron and steel is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as finished
goods are heavy and bulky, entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking
coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities
of manganese are also required to harden the steel. Where should the steel plants
be ideally located? Remember that the finished products also need an efficient
transport network for their distribution to the markets and consumers.
Today with 32.8 million tons of steel production, India ranks ninth among the
world crude steel producers. It is the
Why is the per capita consumption
largest producer of sponge iron. In
of steel so low in India?
spite of large quantity of production of
steel, per capita consumption per annum is only 32 kg.
Aluminium Smelting: Aluminium smelting is the second most important
metallurgical industry in India. It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor
of heat, mallable and becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals. It is used
to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has gained popularity as a substitute
of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.
There are 8 aluminium smelting plants in the country located in Odisha (Nalco
and Balco), West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu. In 2004, India produced over
600 million tons of aluminium.
Look at the Map of Major
Bauxite, the raw material used in
Coal fields, Mines, and Iron
& Steel factory at the end of
the smelters, is a very bulky, dark
the chapter and shade them.
reddish coloured rock. Regular supply
of electricity and an assured source of
raw material at minimum cost are the
two prime factors for the location of
the industry.
Chemical Industries: The Chemical
industry in India is fast growing and
diversifying. It contributes approximately 3 per cent to the GDP. It is the
third largest in Asia and occupies the
twelfth place in the world in term of
its size. It comprises of both large and
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81

small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth has been recorded in both inorganic
and organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture
fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid,
alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic soda.
These industries are widely spread over the country. Why do you think is it so?
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing
of synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Organic chemical plants are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
The chemical industry is its own largest consumer. Basic chemicals undergo
processing to further produce other chemicals that are used for industrial application,
agriculture or directly for consumer markets. Make a list of the products you are
aware of.
Fertiliser Industry: The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of
nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium phosphate
(DAP) and complex fertilisers which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate
(P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash, is entirely imported as we do not have
commercially usable potash or potassium compounds in any form. India is a large
producer of nitrogenous fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units manufacturing
nitrogenous and complex nitrogenous fertilisers, 29 for urea and 9 for producing
ammonium sulphate as a by-product and 68 other small units produce single
superphosphate. At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in
cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat under the Fertiliser Corporation of India.
After the Green Revolution, the industry expanded to several other parts of the
country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards
half the fertiliser production.
Cement Industry: Cement is essential for construction activity such as building
houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports, dams and for other commercial
establishments. This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone,
silica, alumina and gypsum. Coal and electric power are needed apart from rail
transportation.
The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904. After Independence, the
industry expanded. Decontrol of price and distribution since 1989 and other policy
reforms led the cement industry
Where would it be economically viable to set up
to make rapid strides in capacity,
the cement manufacturing units?
process, technology and
The industry has strategically located plants in
production. There are 128 large
Gujarat that have suitable access to the market in
plants and 332 mini cement
the Gulf countries. Find out where the plants are
plants in the country.
located in other states of India. Find their names.
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Improvement in the quality has found the produce a readily available market in
East Asia, Middle East, Africa and South Asia apart from a large demand within the
country. This industry is doing well in terms of production as well as export. Efforts
are being made to generate adequate domestic demand and supply in order to sustain
this industry.

Automobile Industry
Automobiles vehicles provide quick transport of goods and passengers. Trucks,
buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
manufactured in India at various centres. After liberalisation, the coming in of new
and contemporary models stimulated the demand for vehicles in the market, which
led to the healthy growth of the industry including passenger cars, two and threewheelers. This industry had experienced a quantum jump in less than 15 years.
Foreign Direct Investment brought in new technology and aligned the industry with
global development. At present, there are 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and
multi-utility vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles, 14 of two and three-wheelers.
The industry is located around Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bangalore.

Information Technology and Electronics Industry
The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets
to television, telephones, cellular telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars,
computers and many other equipments required by the telecommunication industry.
Bangalore has emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other important centres
for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow
Look at the Map of Major
Software Technology parks and Coimbatore. 18 software technology
on page 104 and shade them.
parks provide single window service and high
data communication facility to software
experts. A major impact of this industry has
been on employment generation. Upto 31
March 2005, the IT industry employed over
one million persons. This number is expected
to increase eight-fold in the next 3 to 4 years.
It is encouraging to know that 30 per cent of
the people employed in this sector are
women. This industry has been a major
foreign exchange earner in the last two or
three years because of its fast growing
Business Processes Outsourcing (BPO)
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83

sector. The continuing growth in the hardware and software industries is the key to
the success of IT industry in India.
In this section, we read about various types of major industries, their
geographical distribution and the localising factors. However, the industries are
also posing environmental threat in terms of land, air and water pollution.
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PART - II
Government and Industrial Development – The Early Years
In India, a few large factories are operated by government and most others by
private companies. This kind of existence of industries run by both government and
private industrialists has emerged because of the policy decided by the Indian
Parliament.
This kind of arrangement was made keeping in view the huge amount of capital
required to set up large industries at that time in India. As we read above, for a large
number of industries to come up it is important to provide basic inputs. Hence it
was presumed that government can invest in basic goods industries and this would
also help privately-owned industries for their expansion. Basic goods industries
not only require more money but also take a long time to be set up. Private industrial
groups or families were not willing to invest in such industries. For example, for
setting up a power plant – production of electricity, it would require five to ten
years. The government had to undertake this responsibility.
Similarly, government also took the responsibility to provide infrastructure
activities – building roads, maintaining transport services such as railways, roadways,
airways, water supply, production of gas, oil and other petroleum products.
Government also introduced many restrictions so that small producers could
be helped. Many industrial activities were allowed only for small producers. For
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Industries in India

¯

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½

example, production of cloth of a specific quality was restricted to handlooms.
Many craft production or small scale manufacturing that people could do in their
homes or workshops were not allowed to be produced in factories.
Government made laws so that the large factory owners get prior permissionlicense-to set up factories. This was done so that there would be better planning
and co ordination. Government was wary of one industrial unit dominating in
producing specific goods. In such a situation, it is possible that the factory owners
may charge higher price from consumers for his or her goods when there is no
competition. The government regulated the quantity of goods produced by factories.
For some goods, the price at which they can be sold was also fixed.

Emerging Problems
Over the years, many of these industrial policies became a hindrance to the
growth of the industry. Those aspiring to set up an industrial unit were required to
follow so many procedures and had to wait for many years to get the approval from
the government offices. There were administrative hurdles, such as delays in
processing applications, which gave rise to the unhealthy practice of bribes.
There were many instances of misuse of the licensing system. Licenses were
not always given to the most efficient producers. The selection was biased in favour
of people with political connections and those who were economically powerful.
Thus, the big and influential people would corner not one but several licenses.
Some of these would be in very different and unrelated products. For example, a
textile manufacturer having secured a license for cement would start a cement
factory, even though the firm had no special competence in the area of cement
production. During the 1970s and 1980s, many of the industrial families in India
had licenses for production of almost all major industrial goods and only few new
people could get into industrial production.
All this discouraged new entrepreneurs, those who were willing to take the risk
of investing money in industrial production and who would work with the latest
technology available.

Write an imaginary dialogue between the big factory and the potter’s wheel in the context of industrilation.
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85

When government controlled the price of certain goods, the producers of these
goods felt that there was no incentive in producing more goods. Rather, control on
prices led to shortage of goods. For example, to buy a scooter, one had to book and
wait for several years before the scooter was actually delivered. There was always a
greater demand for scooters than was the availability in the market. Such shortages
were also common for important basic goods like coal and cement, which in turn,
caused a lot of delay to production of other goods. The shortages were blamed on
the government’s policy of control on Indian industry, particularly its licensing
policy. If only these restrictions on industry were removed, industrialists
complained, production could increase and shortages would be removed.
The protective measures towards small producers also met with little success
with many large producers producing goods clandestinely as small producers.
Another problem faced by Indian industry was the lack of quality of some of its
products. For example, compared to the topmost brand of car produced in India,
there were many other car producers in the world whose cars were of better quality
and also cheaper. One of the reasons for low quality was said to be the lack of
competition among producers in the Indian industry. Even among industries that
were run by private producers, competition was limited due to the government
controls. There were controls on opening new factories and buying new machinery.
Import and export of industrial goods, including machinery and raw materials, were
controlled. Private manufacturers needed the government's permission (license)
for all such activities. Prices of important industrial goods were laid down by the
government and the producer had to sell only at that price. Many people were of the
view that Indian industry, as a result of government’s controls, wasn’t modernizing
fast and was producing goods at high cost and not making technological
improvements.
In the case of government industrial enterprises, government used to allocate a
specific amount every year to operate these industries. In the long run, these were
expected to become independent and generate revenue for the government. However,
it was the other way around for many government run factories they continually
required government assistance and there was regular interference in running them.
Their functioning was much below what was expected.

New Policy for Industries
In the 1990s, the country began to relook at the industrial policies till then. A
new industrial policy was announced. Many activities which were earlier restricted
only for the government were now allowed for the private industries.
Government also relaxed laws so that factory-made consumer goods were also
imported from other countries. Many government rules were simplified to encourage
industrial activities in India especially for new entrepreneurs.
In order to improve the efficiency of government-owned industrial companies,
government sold some of them. The financial support provided by government to
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run these companies has also got reduced. These companies are also allowed to
take decisions independently without interference from government.
Private or government companies from other countries are now encouraged to
come and set up factories in India so that new technology would become common
and more goods could be exported to markets outside the country.

Impact of Industrialisation Policies
There has been a rise in the number of industrial units due to the industrialisation
policies. Employment has increased but less than expected and of low paying quality.
Today, nearly 2 lakh large factories, also called organised manufacturing units, and
nearly 3 crore small (also called unorganised) manufacturing units are operating in
India. These industrial units, both large and small, employ nearly about one-fifth of
India’s 460 million workers today.
Look at the following pie charts. These show employment in the three kinds of
economic activities as percentage of total workers at that time.
Employment in Industry, 1972-73 (in%)

Employment in Industry, 2009-10 (in%)

27
49
24

One important point in industrial development after the new policies were
introduced was that the role of small firms has declined with many big industries
coming up to produce factory-based goods.
Another important goal of industrial policies in India was to generate
employment opportunities in industrial activities. Raising the proportion of people
employed in factories is also generally seen as an important indicator of economic
development of a country. Many laws were enacted in India to streamline industries
so that they provide better salary to workers, provide safety to workers at the
workplace and ensure health and medical benefits. It was envisaged that more and
more industries would get established and most workers would earn better incomes
in due course. This did not happen in India. Even after six decades of Indian
Independence, the share of employment has not gone up as much as expected. A
large section of workers are employed in small industrial units which generally pay
a very low salary and are devoid of safe working conditions and health benefits.
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87

In contrast to the
expectation, large industries
began to replace workers with
technology. More and more
automation has taken place.
This has led to almost zero
additional employment in
large factories.

What are the differences in employment in the
three kinds of economic activities that you notice
from these pie charts?
What is the percentage of change in employment
by industry?
Discuss with your teacher: Did we expect to see a
greater change in employment by industry that did
not happen?

Production of factory-based goods has increased over the years
You may recall that establishing basic industries was the first step that Indian
leaders took to industrialise India. Establishment of those industries resulted in
increased production of these goods. Look at the following charts.

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It was not only the production of steel, cement and other important raw
materials that increased tremendously over the last six decades. This also
resulted in the production many other intermediate and consumer goods. Look
at the following table which show the number of different transport vehicles,
pump sets produced in India. You will notice that each good serve different
purpose. Draw four separate bar diagrams and discuss in the class the probable
impact of the increased production of each of these goods.

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Table 3: Production of transport vehicles and pumps, 1950-2011
Commercial Motor cycles
Pumps
Tractors
Year
vehicles
(Million)
(power driven)
(million)
(million)
(million)
1950-51

9

-

35

-

1960-61

28

1

105

-

1970-71

41

97

259

-

1980-81

72

447

431

71

1990-91

146

1843

19

142

2000-01

152

3756

482

284

2010-11

753

10527

3139

465

1. Can you point out some examples of increase in production of goods that are
used in the production of many products by different factories?
2. What has been the increase in production of cloth over the past 30 years? What
would be the impact of this? Discuss in your class.
3. Refer the chart that shows the production of cement and steel. Draw a table to
show the increase from 1980-81 to present times. Discuss some positive and
negative effects of this increase in production.

Increase in the environmental problems and pollution
The production process in industries involves the use of electricity and application
of different chemicals. In the course of production, these industries release a lot of
other materials. These residual materials are causing pollution in the industrial
locations. One such instance is given in the biological science textbook in chapter X
of Class IX .

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Key words
1. Colonial rule
2. Consumer goods
4. Basic goods industries 5. Self sufficiency
7. Liberalisation

3. Infrastructure facilities
6. Per capita consumption

Improve your learning
1. Why did the government take up the responsibility to set up basic goods industries? (AS1)
2. Why are industries located in specific areas? (AS1)
3. What are the basic goods industries? How are they different from consumer goods
industries? (AS1)
4. Give a list of towns / areas in which some conventional mineral resources are found
and ask the students to identify the possible industries which can be set up. (AS3)
Sl. No. Minerals/
Resources
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Towns/areas in which
List the kind of
these resources are industries that can be set
available
up in this area

Iron ore
Coal
Jute
Oil
Natural Gas
Forests
Manganese
Bauxite

5. Why did the government in 1990s allow private industries in many areas which
were earlier restricted only to government? (AS4)
6. What is the impact of industrial development on employment generation? (AS1)
7. What is the impact of industrial development on revenue? (AS1)
8. ‘Industrial activities increase environmental problems.’ Discuss. (AS4)
9. Write a few slogans on the prevention of environmental pollution. (AS6)
10. Read the paragraph 3 on page 83 and comment on it. (AS2)
11. Observe the map given on page 95 and locate the iron and steel plants in the outline
map of India. (AS5)

Project
Select one agro-based and one mineral based industry in your area.
(i) What are the raw materials they use?
(ii) What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve transportation cost?
(iii) Are these factories following environmental norms?
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INDIA
COAL FIELDS AND COAL MINES.

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CHAPTER

Service Activities in India

8

In the previous chapters, you read about two important productive activities –
agriculture and industries in India. Service activities constitutes the other major
sector. What is a service activity? What is the nature of service activities in India?
How are they important for the country and what are the challenges that we face? In
this chapter, we will try to answer these questions.

What is a service activity?
1. Sarojini is a doctor working in a hospital. She goes around the wards, examines
patients, prescribes medicines and monitors their progress. What exactly does
Dr. Sarojini produce? In terms of commodities – nothing. But in terms of
services, she is helping the patients to recover and to achieve good health.
2. Soundarya sells groceries. This shop has been set up in the front portion of
her house. She opens the shop after sending her children to school and manages
it till late night. Her husband helps her in buying all the grocery items from
wholesale shops in the town. As a trader, she is providing a service or doing
the work of providing the products to the consumers.
3. Ramesh works as an accountant in a company. He has to check accounts,
verify payments and receipts, and ensure that the accounts tally with the bills.
Writing and maintaining accounts is a service or work that all business
organisations require.
4. Sampath has a mini-van. Every morning he goes to the fish market. Many
women buy fish from the fish market and use Sampath’s mini-van to travel to
their locality. He collects payments for transporting fish from the market to
different places.
All four – Sarojini, Soundarya, Ramesh and Sampath are engaged in service
activities. You will find that their activities are different from farmers, agricultural
labourers or industrial workers. (Refer to Venkatapuram, Class VI or paper mill
and industrial workers, Class VII).
They are not producing something tangible like paddy or cloth. They are,
however, doing work that people and businesses require in the form of specialised
services. Service here refers to the nature of work done. This is in contrast to or
different from producing a good. ‘Service’ in this context of work doesn’t mean
something that is done free of cost or out of love and devotion. All the above
mentioned people earn money through this work. This is their livelihood.
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Service activities are crucial and required for agriculture and industrial activities
as well. What would happen to paddy and vegetables if bullock carts, trucks and
buses were not there to provide transport? How can one build buildings if there are
no railways to transport cement bags from factories to sales outlets located in
towns and cities? Even after these goods reach the market, there should be a group
of people who buy them and either sells directly to consumers or to other producers
such as rice mills, oil mills etc. This means that trading activity also constitutes a
major segment of service activities.
Working people engaged in service activities do not produce a commodity,
like these in agriculture or in industry. They do special kind of activities that help
agriculture and industry and also provide a lot of other services that people require.
Another example is the banking and finance related service activities required by
people and business organisations. You had read about this in Class VIII chapter
“Money and Banking”. Similarly, there are telecom, internet and all other types of
communication service providers
There are eight categories of service activities given below. Some detailes are
filled in, others have been left blank. Fill in the blank ones after discussing with
your teacher.
1. Education: Institutions – schools, colleges, universities, technical
institutions. This means people working in these institutions such as teachers,
administrative staff and their activities.
2. Health and Medical Services ........................................................................
3. Trade: A variety of buying and selling activities, both wholesale and retail,
that we see around us. .................................
4. Public Administration: Public services under village and town panchayats,
state and central governments come under this category. Examples: people
who work in police stations, workers of various government departments
such as village administrative officers, revenue inspectors, tahsildars,
Collectors, those who work in all kinds of courts, assistants, clerks,
accountants, typists, peons, drivers etc.
5. Defence: Activities and people involved in the armed forces like army, navy
and air force.
6. Financial activities: Banks and ........................................................................
7. Personal Services: Workers who do domestic work, laundry, cleaning,
provide services like dyeing, hair dressing, beauty parlours, tailoring shops,
photo and video studios.
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8. Activities such as : People working in entertainment and information technology
industry – production of films, TV serials. Those working in media, newspapers,
television channels and advertisement agencies are also included in services.

Importance of the service sector and some challenges
In developing countries like India, developmental initiatives involve setting up
of many establishments. This includes expansion of infrastructure facilities and
other services. Refer to the two employment charts in the previous chapter. Service
activities constitute about one-fourth of all the jobs people do in India. How are
service jobs expanding? One possible reason could be due to improvement in the
general well being of the people. When people earn better incomes, the way they
spend their income also undergoes changes. They tend to spend more on serviceoriented activities such as education, entertainment, eating out and tourism. Let’s
examine some of the factors responsible for increase in the importance of service
sector the recent year.

Changes in technology and exports of services
The continuously changing technology is one of the major driving forces in the
service sector. Since the early 1990s, there has been a tremendous change in the
communication technology about which you have studied in Class VIII. Business
Processes Outsourcing (BPO) has brought in new kinds of employment
opportunities for many young people. BPOs employ people located in India but
they provide services to people located across the globe using telecommunication
links. Many Information Technology companies established in metropolitan cities
employ highly skilled
engineers that provide
specialised software services
to companies all over the
world. They get projects from
these companies abroad.
The
entertainment
industry creates jobs in
various print and electronic
media firms, films, cable
television channels etc. It is
common to find internet
cafes and public telephone
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Call centre

Fig. 8.1: Call Centre
Service Activities in India

booths in most of the cities and towns. The advertising industry has also created new
job opportunities. Many new activities have emerged in banking and insurance sectors.
All these are possible now due to change in technology.
All these require not only advanced level of technological equipments such as
computers but also employ a very few highly skilled workers. In other words,
producers in the service sector use a lot of machinery and equipments, employing
less number of highly skilled people. Thus, the growth of service sector in India
may not help in reducing unemployment in the country.
There are many ‘call centers’ in big cities. If a resident of London wants
information about her bank deposits or her hospital records, she may get it from
such a ‘call center’ located in India.
I am Sarala, working as a specialised software engineer for the last 3 years.
My company has 120 employees on its pay roll and has a sales figure of about Rs.
50 crores. Four friends started this company together seven years ago. Many of
our colleagues regularly go abroad for providing various support services and
consultancy. I’m paid a good salary but also expected to work very long hours.

Shifting from service activities to others: “Outsourcing”
Due to changes in technology and stiff competition in the industrial sector,
many industries have diverted a major section of their activities to service sector.
They don’t engage in these activities themselves but get it done from ‘outside’. For
example, until a few years ago, if any company employed security staff, they used to
recruit people and pay their salaries from the company’s pay-roll. Now-a-days, in
order to reduce the cost and avoid paying additionally for health, pension and provident
fund benefits to workers, a large number of industries outsource security services
to security agencies. Many manufacturing companies also outsource research and
development, accounting, legal services, customer service, public relations etc. work
to other service provides

Employmentin low income service sector
Closure of many industries, particularly textiles and other industries, has forced
workers of these factories to work as small vendors, rickshaw pullers and other low
income service professions. This shift has created unemployment in the urban areas.
People from rural areas come to work in the city but there are not enough employment
opportunities in urban areas. So, they either go back to agriculture sector or land up
in many unskilled low earning employment opportunities in services.
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I am Aseem. I came to Delhi more than
10 years ago. I ply the rickshaw during the
day and stay on the roadside at night. Every
evening, I have to pay rent to the owner. My
earnings from cycle rickshaw are not regular.
On some days, I earn Rs.250 and on other
days, I get hardly 100-150 rupees. These
days, there’s more competition and the
number of cycle rickshaws in this area is
increasing.
The following table shows the number of workers (in lakhs) employed in
different service activities in large enterprises in 1991 and 2010. Read
the table carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Service sector activities
Wholesale and retail trade
Transport, storage and
communications
Finance, insurance,
real estate etc.
Community, social and
personal services

Government jobs
1991
2010
1.5
1.7

Private jobs
1991
2010
3.0
5.1

30.3

25.3

0.5

1.7

11.9

14.1

2.5

15.5

92.3

90.5

14.9

21.4

Which service activity gave maximum employment in 2010?
Has the number of government jobs increased or decreased over the years?
What kind of jobs has government generated the most during this period?
What kind of jobs were people able to get in the private service activities?
Are there any differences between jobs provided by the government and private
employers? Discuss.

Stress in jobs in Information Technology
Many young people dream of becoming a software engineer these days.
Although these service jobs bring a lot of income to families but at the same time,
bring stress in the new jobs that they do. Read the following statement of an IT
professional.
My lifestyle has improved due to IT. In college, I had just two trousers and
two shirts. Now, I have many shirts. I buy good quality clothes and I don’t have to
think about how much I spend. So definitely, working in the software industry
has added comfort to my life. Earlier, there were a lot of financial problems in the
family— my brothers and sisters were not able to study properly due to this, and
I am very happy that I have been able to solve this problem. But it is a stressful
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and mechanical life; there is no social life. In my hometown, people were always
there around me—neighbours and relatives. There was always someone to go
and talk to but here, it’s difficult to make friends.

Desired service today
In recent times, there has been some debate about expansion of service activities
that we need to understand. Read the two case studies and answer the questions that
follow.
Case Study 1: Foreign Direct Investment in Retail Sector
According to India’s new FDI Policy of 2012, foreign companies can now set
up retail shops to sell goods in India. While a few people are supporting this new
policy, many others are arguing against this policy. Those who are critical about it
argue that the small farmers and producers may initially find it attractive to sell
their produce directly to the large foreign supermarkets but these foreign investor companies will sooner or later misuse their power to buy this produce in
large quantities and compel the farmers to sell them at very low prices. About
20-40% of agricultural goods are wasted due to lack of proper storage facilities.
This is not a small quantity which can be neglected when it comes to improving
the living conditions of farmers. This wastage can be minimized only if the government establishes state of the art storage facilities which only MNCs have today. The idea that supermarkets will minimize the wastage of farm produce through
investment in storage facilities is not persuasive on two counts: the alleged wastage of farm produce is exaggerated, and the big retailers have, in fact, not invested as much as they were expected to do in storage facilities. Moreover there
will be loss of jobs in traditional, smaller retail. FDI will drive out smaller retailers,
resulting in the concentration of market power in the hands of a few.
The supporters argue that there will be gainers and losers from FDI in retail,
but the overall gains will outweigh the losses. Moreover, in the course of time,
the losers too will benefit. They argue that large and medium sized farmers will
initially benefit the most, while the small farmers or landless labourers will be
the losers. However, the purchases by the big supermarkets will increase the
demand for agricultural products, which in turn will increase the agricultural output ... which in turn may increase the demand for labour. This will increase agricultural wages in the long run.
You may recall what you read in class VI about how paddy wholesale traders
earn their profit from farmers by lending money and taking their produce in
return at lower prices than those prevailing in the markets. The foreign retailer
may also enter into an interlinked contract with farmers, and at a lower interest
rate than charged by the moneylenders. This too is not a desirable state of affairs
for the farmer, but a lesser evil: MNCs can purchase more of the produce due to
better storage facilities and this
What do you think? Can the government do will be more beneficial to farmers
something to address this issue?
than what they have to put up
with moneylenders.
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Case Study 2: India faces an acute shortage of skilled human resources in the
health sector, says a recent report
India faces an acute shortage of over 64 lakh skilled service professionals in
the health sector with Uttar Pradesh alone accounting for a shortfall of 10 lakh
allied healthcare professionals, according to a study. The density of doctors in
India in 2011 was six for a population of 10,000, while that of nurses and midwives was 13 per 10,000 persons. India has a doctor to population ratio of 0.5:
1000 in comparison to 0.3 in Thailand, 0.4 in Sri Lanka, 1.6 in China, 5.4 in the
U.K., and 5.5 in the U.S.
There is also a gap of 20 lakh dental assistance-related technologists, 18 lakh
rehabilitation-related workforce, 9 lakh miscellaneous health workers and 9 lakh
surgery and anaesthesia-related professionals. There is also a shortage of around
2.4 lakh medical technologists, 2 lakh surgical and intervention technology-related health professionals, 1.3 lakh ophthalmology-related workers, 62,000 medical laboratory professionals.
The shortfall of different medical professionals has resulted in the uneven
distribution of all cadres of health workers, medical and nursing colleges, nursing
and ANM (Auxiliary Nurse and Midwife) schools, and allied health institutions
across the States with wide disparity in the quality of education. The uneven
distribution of professional colleges and schools has also led to an imbalance
both in the production capacity and in the quality of education and training, leading to poor health outcomes. By empowering allied health professionals or paramedics, as they are known at present, they can be the leaders of change, playing
critical role in improving the reach of health services to underserved areas.
What is your opinion about foreign companies setting up retail shops in India?
How do you think can they generate employment in India?
Talk to some retail shop owners in your neighbourhood. Discuss their opinions
on foreign retailing shops in your class.
Prepare a table with two columns and list out the advantages and disadvantages of
allowing foreign retail stores in India.
Why is it necessary to establish more medical institutions in India?
Who, in your opinion, should set up new medical institutions – private sector or
government? Why?
To sum up, in this chapter, we have looked at the importance of service activities
and how they contribute to economic development of the country. India is required
to shift people from agriculture to industry and service jobs. This means the
sufficient number of jobs will have to be generated. More and more factories should
be established and infrastructure such as roads, hospitals, educational institutions
are to be set up. We need more good quality roads and other transport facilities,
storage facilities, credit facilities. Many industrial activities are now dependent on
the service activities to face the competition. New economic policies in India are
also giving emphasis to expansion of service activities.
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Key words
1. Call centers
4. Information Technology

2. Service activities
5. Economic development

3. Outsourcing
6. Retail trade

Improve your learning
1. What is meant by the term ‘service activities’ ? (AS1)
2. List five service activities and give your reasons for why they can not to be considered
as either agricultural or industrial activities. (AS1)
3. How can service activities help in the overall development of a country? (AS1)
4. How are agricultural and industrial activities related to services? (AS1)
5. ‘The growth of service sector is sustainable and can make India a rich country’. Do
you agree with this statement? Elaborate. (AS2)
6. Why are service sector activities becoming important? (AS1)
7. Service activities cannot expand beyond a level without agriculture and industries.
Explain.(AS1)
8. How can service sector reduce educated unemployment in India? (AS1)
9. Is there any migration of labourers from your area? Find out the reasons for the
migration. (AS3)
10. Read the 9th paragraph of this chapter ‘Working People engaged’ and answer the
following: (AS2)
What are the service activities required for agriculture and industries?
11. Observe the map given on page 104. Locate the software technology parks of our
country in the outline map of India. (AS5)

Project
Talk with any seven working people and identify with sector they are employed in.
Write a brief note or design a poster about their work. What relationship do you
see between their employment and place of residence?
Sl. No. Name of the
Nature of work
person
done
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Explain your reason for the classification.

Agriculture/ Industry/ Services

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Credit in the Financial System

CHAPTER

9

In Class VIII, you read about money and different kinds of accounts in a bank. You
may be aware that people borrow money from various sources like friends, relatives,
money lenders, banks etc. Agricultural labourers usually borrow money from their
employers and work for less than market wages. Different kinds of credit arrangements
are an important component of the financial system of a country and play a crucial
role. In this chapter, we will read about the different aspects of the credit system.

Bank deposits as money
Modern forms of money include currency - paper notes, coins and bank deposits.
You read about them in Class VIII.
Banks accept deposits and also pay an amount as interest on the deposits. In this
way, people’s money is safe with the banks and also earns an interest. People have
the right to withdraw the money as and when they require. Since the deposits in the
bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand
deposits.
Demand deposits offer another interesting facility. It is this facility which lends
it the essential characteristics of money (that of a medium of exchange). You have
read of payments being made by cheques or by electronic means instead of cash.
Since one can withdraw money in cash or make payments by cheque, it makes these
deposits work like any other form of money such as currency notes. Since demand
deposits are accepted widely as a means of payment, along with currency, they
constitute money in the modern economy.
You must remember the role that the banks play here. But for the banks, there
would be no demand deposits and no payments by cheques against these deposits.
The modern forms of money - currency and deposits - are closely linked to the
working of the modern banking system.
This entire system is
Why are demand deposits considered as supervised by the government’s
money?
Reserve Bank of India so that the
Are the deposits kept at the bank also insured promise made by the banks to
honour withdrawals in cash or
by the government? Find out the details.
Do you think that fixed deposits that people payment by cheque is always
kept. The government has to
keep with banks would easily work like money?
ensure that people’s trust in the
Discuss.
money kept with the banks in the
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form of demand deposits or as fixed deposits is always maintained and their money
is available for use and accepted by all. The Reserve Bank issues guidelines for
this system and examines its working so that people’s trust is maintained. Similarly,
the government has to ensure that the supply of notes and coins is in adequate
amount and in good condition, so that people don’t face problems in the currency
being used.

Loan Activities of banks

People make deposits
harvest

business

People take loans

salary

People get interest

People pay interest

Fig 9.1 : Circular flow of money - Public bank

What do the banks do with the deposits which they accept from the public?
There is an interesting mechanism at work here. Banks keep only a small proportion
of their deposits as cash with themselves. For example, banks in India these days
hold about 15 percent of their deposits as cash. This is kept as provision to pay the
depositors who might come to withdraw money from the bank on any given day.
Since, on any particular day, only some of its many depositors come to withdraw
cash, the bank is able to manage with this cash. This is how banking started because
banks all over the world found that they could keep their promise of paying cash
on demand by keeping only a small fraction of the money in cash.
Banks use the major portion of the deposits to extend loans. There is a huge
demand for loans for various economic activities. We shall read more about this
in the following sections. Banks make use of the deposits to meet the loan
requirements of the people. In this way, banks mediate between those who have
surplus funds (the depositors) and those who are in need of these funds (the
borrowers). Banks charge a higher interest rate on loans than what they offer on
deposits. The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid
to depositors is the primary source of income for banks.
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What would happen if all the depositors
went and asked for their money at the same
time?

Why people require credit

Compared to the past, people’s need
for credit has increased. This may be
Talk to someone who has taken a bank due to a variety of reasons. In
loan. What was the purpose and how did agricultural practices, earlier most of
the inputs were supplied by the farmers
he/she approach the bank?
themselves. They used their own cattle
Interview a bank manager. What are the
for ploughing and took help from family
different loans that they have given? Are
members for sowing seeds and
there any activities for which they would
manuring their farms. The new farming
not give loans?
practices require substantial amount of
Apart from banks people keep deposits in cash in hand – to buy seeds, fertiliser,
other institutions such as housing pesticides etc. and to pay for ploughing,
societies, companies, post office threshing, harvesting and hired workers.
schemes etc. Discuss how is that
The increased availability of
different from bank deposits?
consumer goods in the market and
arrangements for finance has also
increased the variety of credit arrangements. We get a variety of goods – ranging
from essential food grains to utensils, home appliances and furniture etc, on credit
now a days. Manufacturers and sellers of these goods encourage people, particularly
those with regular monthly incomes and having bank accounts, to buy on credit and
pay in monthly installments. For example, if you purchase a television for Rs.20,000,
you can pay Rs.5000 initially and pay the rest every month over one or two years.
People also borrow money to make the payment of school/ college fees and for
health services. One of the major reasons for indebtedness is the need to borrow
for medical requirements.
As business and trade increases, people’s requirement of loans also increases.
A substantial part of a business is financed by borrowings from various sources.
The idea is to earn more than what they have to pay as interest. How does this work?
We would examine this through the examples given below.

Two Different Credit Scenarios

It is festive season two months from now and the shoe manufacturer, Ali,
has received an order from a big trader in town for 3,000 pairs of shoes to be
delivered in a month’s time. To complete the production on time, Ali has to hire
a few more workers for stitching and pasting work. He has to purchase the raw
materials. To meet these expenses, Ali obtains loans from two sources. First, he
asks the leather supplier to supply leather now and promises to pay him later.
Second, he obtains a loan in cash from the trader as advance payment for 1000
pairs of shoes with a promise to deliver the whole order by the end of the month.
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At the end of the month, Ali is able to deliver the order, make a good profit,
and repay the money that he had borrowed.
A large number of transactions in our day-to-day activities involve credit in
some form or the other. Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender
supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of
future payment. Ali borrows money on credit to meet the need for working capital
for production. The credit helps him to meet the ongoing expenses of production,
complete the production on time, and thereby increases his earnings. Credit
therefore plays a vital and positive role in this situation.
Swapna, a small farmer, grows groundnut on her 3 acres of land. She takes a
loan from the moneylender to meet the expenses of cultivation, hoping that her
harvest would help repay the loan. Midway through the season, the crop is hit
by pests and the crop fails. Though Swapna sprays her crops with expensive
pesticides, it makes little difference. She is unable to repay the money to lender
and the debt grows over the year into a large amount. Next year, Swapna takes
a fresh loan for cultivation. It is a normal crop this year. But the earnings are not
enough to cover the old loan. She is still caught in debt. She has to sell a part of
the land to pay off the debt.
In the rural areas, the main
demand for credit is for crop
production. Crop production
involves considerable costs of
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides,
water, electricity, repair of
equipments, etc. There is a
minimum span of three to four
months between the time when
the farmers buy these inputs and
when they sell the crop. Farmers
usually take crop loans at the
beginning of the season and
repay the loan after harvest.
Repayment of the loan is
crucially dependent on how
good the crop was and
subsequently, the income
generated from farming.
In Swapna's case, the failure
of the crop made loan
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Fill the following table:
Ali

Swapna

Why did they
need credit?

What was
the risk?
What was the
outcome?
Supposing, Ali continues to get orders from
traders. What would be his position after 6 years?
What are the reasons that make Swapna’s
situation so risky? Discuss the following
factors: pesticides, role of moneylenders and
climate.
Credit in the Financial System

repayment impossible. She had to sell part of the land to repay the loan. Instead of
being helpful for Swapna to improve her earnings, the credit left her worse off.
This is an example of what is commonly called debt-trap. Credit in this case pushes
the borrower into a situation from which recovery is very painful.
In one situation, credit helps to increase earnings and therefore, the person is
better off than before. In another situation, because of the crop failure, credit pushes
the person into a debt trap. She is clearly in a trouble some situation than before.
Whether credit would be useful or not, therefore, depends on the risks in the situation
and if there is some support in case of loss.
People also require credit for consumption and to manage many sociocultural situations. Marriages require a huge expenditure on both bride and
groom is side which compel families to borrow. Do you think there are
other reasons for people borrowing money in your area? Find out from your
parents and teachers and discuss in the class.

Terms of Credit
Every loan agreement specifies an interest rate which the borrower must pay to
the lender along with the repayment of the
Collateral
principal. In addition, lenders may demand
collateral (security) against loans. If the Collateral is an asset that the
borrower fails to repay the loan, the lender borrower owns (such as land,
has the right to sell the asset or collateral to building, vehicle, livestock, deposits
obtain payment. Property such as land titles, with banks) and uses this as a
deposits with banks, livestock are some guarantee to a lender until the loan
common examples of collateral used for is repaid.
borrowing.

Fig 9.2 An immovable or movable property as collateral
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Sivakami, a teacher has taken a loan of Rs. 5 lakhs from a bank to purchase a
house. The annual interest rate on the loan is 12 percent and the loan is to be
repaid in 10 years in monthly instalments. She had to submit the documents
showing her employment records and
Why do lenders ask for collateral while
salary before the bank agreed to give her
lending?
the loan. The bank retained the papers
How does the demand for collateral affect
of the new house as collateral, which will
a poor person’s capacity to borrow?
be returned to Sivakami only when she
repays the entire loan with interest.
Fill in the blanks choosing the correct
option from the brackets:
Interest rate, collateral and
documentation requirement and the mode
While taking a loan, borrowers look for
of repayment together comprise of what
easy terms of credit. This means
is called the terms of credit. The terms of
(low/high) interest rate,
(easy/
credit vary substantially from one credit
tough) conditions for repayment,
arrangement to another. Depending on the
(less/more) collateral and
nature of the lender and the borrower, the
documentation requirements.
terms of credit vary. The next section will
provide examples of the varying terms of
credit in different credit arrangements.

Variety of Credit Arrangements: Example of a Village

Vasu is a small farmer and he needs loans for cultivation on his 1.5 acres of
land. For the last few years, he has been borrowing from an agricultural trader in
the village at an interest rate of 3 percent per month i.e 36 % per year. At the
beginning of the cropping season, the trader supplies the farm inputs on credit,
which is to be repaid when the crops are ready for harvest.

Besides the interest charged on the loan, the trader also makes the farmers
promise to sell the crop to him. In this way, the trader can ensure that the money
is repaid promptly. Also, since the crop prices are low after the harvest, the
trader is able to make a profit by buying the crop at a low price from the farmers
and then selling it later when the price has risen.

Arun is a farmer and has 7 acres of land. He is one of the few persons to
receive a bank loan for cultivation. The interest rate on the loan is 10 percent
per annum and can be repaid anytime within 3 years. Arun plans to repay the
loan after harvest by selling a part of the crop. He then intends to store the rest
of the crop in a ware house in the nearby town and apply for a fresh loan from
the bank against the cold storage receipt. The bank offers this facility to farmers
who have taken crop loan from them.
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List the different sources of credit in the
above examples.
Underline the various uses of credit in the
above passages.
Can everyone get credit at a cheap rate? If
not, we can?
Tick the correct option(s):
(a) Over the years, Rama's debt
- will rise.
- will remain constant.
- will decline.
(b) Arun is one of the few persons to take a
bank loan. One reason for this is
- He is an educated person.
- Banks demand collateral which everyone
cannot provide.
- Interest rate on bank loans is the same as
the interest rate charged by the traders.
- There is no documentation work required
for getting bank loan
Talk to a few people to find out the credit
arrangements that exist in your area.
Record your conversation with them. Are
there any differences of opinion in the
terms of credit?

Rama is an agricultural labour
working in a neighbouring field.
There are several months in the
year when Rama has no work and
needs credit to meet the daily
expenses. Expenses on sudden
illnesses or functions in the family
are also met through loans. Rama
has to depend on her employer, a
landowner, for credit. The
landowner charges an interest
rate of 5 percent per month. Rama
repays the money by working for
the landowner. Most of the time,
Rama has to take a fresh loan
before the previous loan has been
repaid. At present, she owes the
landowner Rs. 5,000. Though the
landowner does not treat her well,
she continues to work for him
since she can get loans from him
when in need. Rama tells us that
the only source of credit for the
landless people is the landowneremployers.

Fill the following details for Sivakami, Arun, Rama and Vasu.
Particulars

Sivakami

Arun

Rama

Vasu

Loan Amount
(in Rupees)
Duration of loan
Documents required
Interest rate
Mode of repayment
Collateral

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Formal and informal sources of credit in India

Trad

ers 3%
Rala
tive
s an
d Fr
iend
s 7%

In the above examples, we
saw that people obtain loans from
various sources. The various
types of loans can be
conveniently grouped as formal
7%
rs
sector loans and informal sector
e
h
Ot
loans. Among the formal loans,
Moneylenders 30%
the loans are from banks and
cooperatives, the informal loans
include loans from money
Cooperative societies
27%
lenders, traders, employers,
s 1%
d
r
o
l
Land
relatives and friends etc. In the
pie-chart, you can see the various
Commercial banks
sources of credit to rural
25%
households in India. Out of every
100 rupee credit required by rural
families, Rs.25 was available
from commercial banks. Besides
Fig 9.3 : Sources of credit for rual
Households in India in 2003
banks, the other major source of
cheap credit in rural areas is the
cooperative societies (or cooperatives).There are several types of cooperatives such
as farmers’ cooperatives, weavers’ cooperatives etc. You will also notice that money
lenders are an important section of informal credit providers in India.
From the data given above (fig. 9.3) complete the following table and discuss the
changes that one can observe from 1961 till date.
Credit Organisations
Cooperatives and Commercial banks
Government and other formal sources
Total of formal organisations
Moneylenders
Traders
Landlords
Relatives and friends
Other sources
Total of informal organisations
Total percentage
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Source of credit (in %)
1961
1971 1981
2003
10.3
24.4 58.6
?
5.5

7.3

4.6

?

?
62.0
7.2

?
36.1
8.4

?
16.1
3.1

?
?
?

7.6

8.6

4.0

?

13.1 11.2
2.1
2.4
?
?
100.0 100.0

?
?
?
100.0

6.4
0.8
?
100.0

Credit in the Financial System

New Initiatives
The RBI has now initiated processes for
improving the financial access that people in
rural areas have. All banks would open rural
accounts using Business Facilitators and
Business Correspondents. These correspondents would encourage people in rural areas
to open bank accounts so that they can save
their money and also use loan facilities of the
bank. These facilitators would help them
connect with the local branch. Electronic
identification systems would be used to open
these accounts.
Recently, the government initiated
providing Unique Identification Number to
every citizen of India. All those who have
enrolled themselves are given a card called
Aadhaar. Those who have this number can
open the bank account easily and also get the
benefits and services provided by
government. Earlier, banks used to make it
mandatory to put a minimum amount while
opening an account.
Now-a-days, can open an account in the
bank and there is no compulsion to keep any
minimum amount. This is called ‘Basic
Savings Bank Deposit Account’ (BSBDA).

The RBI ensures that the banks
give loans not just to profit-making
businesses and traders but also to
small cultivators, small scale
industries, to small borrowers etc.
Besides RBI, National Bank for
Agricultural and Rural Development
(NABARD) is another organisation
that facilitates formal credit
organisations in rural India.
Even though the amount of bank
loans given for agriculture have been
increasing in recent years, a
considerable section of farmers still
do not have access to bank credit. In
2011, there were 14 crore farmers in
India. Out of this, only about 5.3 crore
farmers had agricultural loan accounts.
This means that more than two-third
of farmers do not have access to bank
loan facilities. These nearly 9 crore
farmers have to rely on informal
sources of credit such as money
lenders and traders. They charge
exorbitant rates of interest as you have
seen in the earlier examples.

Formal and Informal Credit: Who gets what?
There is no organization that monitors and regulates the credit activities of
lenders in the informal sector. They are able to lend at whatever interest rate they
can force upon the people.
There are some major differences between the way formal and informal credit
providers operate in India. The formal credit providers follow certain rules and
regulations framed by government and in particular, the RBI, and they also expect
their clients also to follow certain procedures. However, informal credit providers
do not follow such government rules and they evolve their own procedures. Formal
credit providers also have to match certain expectations of government which is
not required for the informal credit providers. When the borrower is unable to
repay as per the agreed terms, formal credit providers cannot use any illegal ways
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113

to get back the credit, where as informal credit providers use many coercive and
illegal ways of getting the money back which at times leads to borrowers
committing suicides.
Compared to the formal lenders, most of the informal lenders charge a much
higher rate of interest on loans. This means that the cost to the borrower of informal
loans is much higher. Although many states have laws to protect its people from
informal credit providers such as money lenders from charging a high interest
rate, these lows not sufficient to make the money lenders charge low interest
rates but are yet to be enforced effectively.
Higher cost of borrowing means a larger part of the earnings of the borrowers
is used to repay the loan. Hence, borrowers have less income left for themselves.
In certain cases, the high interest rate of borrowing can mean that the amount to be
repaid is greater than the income of the borrower. This could lead to increasing
debt. Infact people who might wish to start an enterprise by borrowing may not do
so because of the high cost of borrowing.
For these reasons, banks and cooperative societies need to lend more. This
would lead to higher incomes because many people could then borrow cheaply
for a variety of different needs. They could grow crops, do business, set up smallscale industries etc. They could set up new industries or engage in business activity.
Cheap and affordable credit for all is crucial for the country's development.
The rich households are availing cheap credit from formal lenders whereas
the poor households have to pay a heavy price for borrowing from informal sources.
The following table shows how urban families borrow from two sources in 2003
(in percentage). Read the table carefully and fill in the blanks in the passage given.
Description of the
Borrower Households

Formal
Credit

Informal
Credit

Total
Credit

Poor Households

15

85

100

Households with few assets

47

53

100

Well-off Households

72

28

100

Rich Households

90

10

100

Source:India’s Debit and Investment Survey-2003 by N.S.S.O. conducted Report No.501, Dec 2005.

The table above shows the share of formal and informal sources for people living in
urban areas. The people include both rich and poor households. You can see that .....per
cent of the credit needs of the poor households are met from informal sources. Formal
sources of credit account for only .....per cent. Compare this with the rich households.
What do you find? Only ......percent of their loans are from informal sources, while .....
per cent is from formal sources. You would find a similar pattern in rural areas.
What do all these suggest? First, the formal sector still meets only about half of the
total credit needs of the rural people. The remaining credit needs are met through the
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informal sources. Most of the loans from the informal lenders have very high
interest rates and do little to increase the income of the borrowers. Thus, it is
necessary that banks and cooperatives
What are the differences between formal
increase their lending, particularly in the
and informal sources of credit?
rural area, so that the dependence on
Why should credit at reasonable rates be informal sources of credit reduces.
available for all?
Second, while formal sector loans
Should there be a supervisor such as the need to expand, it is also necessary that
Reserve Bank of India that looks into the everyone receives these loans. At
loan activities of informal lenders? Why present, it is the richer households who
would its task be quite difficult?
receive formal credit whereas the poor
Do you think that the low share of formal have to depend on the informal sources.
sector credit for poorer households has It is important that the formal credit is
been one of the factors for farmer distributed more equally so that the poor
can benefit from the cheaper loans.
distress in Telangana? Discuss.

Self-Help Groups for the Poor
In the previous section, we read that poor households are still dependent on
informal sources of credit. Getting a loan from a bank is much more difficult than
taking a loan from informal sources.
Bank loans require proper documents and collateral. Absence of collateral is
one of the major reasons which prevents the poor from getting bank loans. They
have a few assets to keep as collateral. Informal lenders such as the moneylenders,
on the other hand, know the borrowers personally and hence are often willing to
give a loan without collateral. The borrowers can, if necessary, approach the
moneylenders even without repaying their earlier loans. However, the moneylenders
charge very high rates of interest and do not reveal the terms of the transactions
and harass the poor borrowers. They also have ways of linking this credit to buying
the produce at a cheap rate or forcing them to provide labour.
In recent years, government and Non Government Organisations (NGOs) have
tried out some new ways of providing loans to the poor. The idea is to organise
rural poor, in particular women, into small Self Help Groups (SHGs) and pool
(collect) their savings. A typical SHG has 15-20 members, usually belonging to
one neighbourhood, who meet and save regularly. Saving per member varies from
Rs. 25 to Rs. 100 or more, depending on the ability of the people to save. Members
can take small loans from the group itself to meet their needs. The group charges
interest on these loans but this is still less than what the moneylender charges.
After a year or two, if the group is regular in savings, the group is eligible for
loan from the bank. This bank linkage enhances the loan amount available to all the
members. Loan is sanctioned in the name of the group and it ensures that the loans
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115

are paid back. The trust and pressure among the members makes this possible.
Important decisions regarding the savings and loan activities are taken by the group
members. The group decides the terms of credit. Also, the group members are
jointly responsible for the repayment of the loan. Any case of non-repayment of
loans by any one member, it is followed up seriously by other members in the
group. Because of this feature, banks are willing to lend to the poor women when
organised in SHGs, even though they have no collateral as such.
Collateral usually kept by banks is not necessary. These loans are meant to
create self-employment opportunities for the members. For instance, members
take small loans for releasing mortgaged land, for meeting working capital needs
(e.g. buying seeds, fertilizers, raw
How is a loan to an SHG member different
materials like bamboo and cloth), for
from an individual loan by a bank?
buying housing materials, for
Some SHG groups charge very high interest
acquiring assets like sewing machine,
rates for loans to its members? Is this fair?
handlooms,cattle etc.
Discuss.
Moreover, SHGs are the building
blocks of organisation of the rural and
Find out: What is the role of a federation
urban poor. Not only do women
of SHG groups?
become financially self-reliant, the
regular meetings of the group provide a platform to discuss and act on a variety of
social issues such as health, nutrition, domestic violence, etc.

Financial Literacy

Financial Literacy is the process of equipping oneself with knowledge and
information on financial matters. Taking interest in financial literacy helps one to
have better financial planning, puts them in a better position to achieve their financial
goals and protect onself from frauds and debt traps. It aims to inculcate savings
habits, improve the understanding of financial products leading to effective use of
financial services and thus helps is better money management. Further, financial
literacy facilitates easy access to financial services.

Financial literacy material is available on the website of Reserve Bank of India
(www.rbi.org.in). The financial literacy material available now covers subjects such as
features of genuine bank notes, know your Reserve Bank, how RBI touches the life of
the common person, caution against emails/ sms offering huge sums of money from
abroad, caution against providing bank account details on internet, information of
loan products available from banks, why save with banks?, grievance redressal
mechanism, Banking Ombudsman Scheme, caution against depositing money in unincorporated bodies/ un-licensed entities, Deposit Insurance (Are my deposits safe
in banks?, What is Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation) etc. Financial
literacy information is available in brochures/ pamphlets prepared by RBI and other
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banks. Further, RBI has developed comics on financial literacy subjects for the benefit
of the school children. ‘Raju and the Money Tree’, ‘Money Kumar and Monitory Policy’
etc. are the names of the comics that can be downloaded from the RBI website
mentioned above. In addition to the above, for the benefit of illiterate persons in rural,
urban and remote areas, State Level Bankers Committee (SLBC), Combined Andhra
Pradesh has prepared an audio CD on the benefits of saving with banks.

Financial Literacy is an important adjunct for promoting financial inclusion,
consumer protection and ultimately, financial stability. Financial inclusion and financial
literacy need to go hand in hand to enable the common man to understand the need
and benefits of the products and services offered by formal financial institutions. In
India, the need for financial literacy is even greater considering the low levels of literacy
and the large section of the population that are still out of the formal financial set-up.
Financial literacy has assumed greater importance in recent years as financial markets
have become increasingly complex and the common man finds it very difficult to make
informed decisions. Further, in view of higher percentage of household savings in our
country, financial literacy can play a significant role in the efficient allocation of
household savings and the ability of individuals to meet their financial goals.

Key words
1. Demand deposits
4. Commercial banks

2. Economic activities
3. Cooperative societies
5. Informal sources of credit

Improve your learning
1. Most of the credit needs of the poor households are met through informal sources.
The dependence of richer households on informal credit is less. Do you agree? Use
the data given on page 114 to support your answer. (AS3)
2. How are the high interest rates on loans harmful? (AS1)
3. What is the basic idea behind the SHGs for the poor? Explain in your own words.(AS4)
4. Talk to a banker and find out the different purposes for which people in urban areas
generally take loans? (AS3)
5. What is the difference between bank loans taken directly and through SHG? (AS1)
6. Read paragraph 3 under the heading ‘Self Helf Group for the Poor’ and answer the
question: How are SHGs working in your area? (AS2)
7. What are the services rendered by the banks in fulfilling the needs of farmers? (AS6)

Project
Has there been any incident of farmers committing suicide in your area? If so, find
out the reasons and make a report, discuss in the classroom by adding a few
newspaper clippings related to this issue.
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CHAPTER

Prices and Cost of Living

10

You would have heard people talking of the rising prices of commodities and
the difficult situation they face because of price rise. Why do people appear agitated and worried with rising prices? Does this happen for most commodities or
only for a few things? Does it affect everyone in a similar way? These are some of
the issues discussed in this chapter.

Family Budget

Your parents earn their income by doing some work – be it farming, construction work, selling vegetables or groceries, working in an office, shop or factory etc. They buy things for the house and spend money on household requirements. At times, they have to borrow from somebody. There’s always some plan
for the expenditure and how they would buy what is required with the money
they have. This balancing of expenditure to income is called a Budget.

Every family makes a budget – it could be written down, or done mentally.
Let us take the budget of a family that sells vegetables in the vegetable market.

Table-1 Subbamma’s Budget for January 2013
Receipts

Expenditure

Earnings in a month

Rs. 10,000

Food items

Rs. 3000

Amount borrowed

Rs. 2,500

Rent

Rs. 2000

School fees

Rs. 1500

Medicines and doctor fees

Rs. 2500

Bus and auto expenses

Rs. 1500

Electricity, mobile and other

Rs. 2000

from relatives

expenses for daily needs
Total Receipts

Rs. 12,500

Total Expenditure

Rs.12,500

In the above table, you can, see the income received as earnings by
Subbamma’s family is shown on the left hand side of the account, and their expenditure on the right hand side. If you add up their expenditure it comes to
Rs.12,500 - which is more than their earnings Rs.10,000! So they had to borrow
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money from their relatives (Rs.2500) to cover an extra expenditure when their
daughter fell ill and money was needed for medicines etc. This is shown in the
second row on the left. In the same way, thousands of households prepare their
budgets and adjust their consumption on the basis of the income they earn.

How changes in prices affect family budget?
Let us look at Subbamma’s family budget once again. Supposing next month,
their house-owner increases the rent to Rs.2500. At the same time, bus fares
and petrol prices also increase, so her family now has to spend Rs.2000 per month
on transport. With the new prices, their cost of living has now increased by another Rs.1000. How can her family manage this, if there is no increase in their
earnings? If they have some savings, they can use that. Otherwise, they are compelled to borrow from friends or relatives. But they also have to repay them with
interest isn’t it?

It could also be true that if Subbamma borrows from close relatives, she
need not have to pay interest. If they borrow from a money lender, she will have
to repay the borrowing with some interest. If the interest Rs.3 for every Rs.100
is Rs.3 or 3% per month, Rs.75 would have to be added every month as interest.
Suppose Subbamma’s family is able to repay only after six months, this means,
they would have to repay Rs.2500 plus Rs.450 i.e. Rs.2950.
One way for them to adjust their budget is to reduce some of their expenditure.
If they cut down the number of trips in auto or reduces the purchase of some food
items, money spent on mobile phone and so on, they can adjust their expenditure
to their earnings with the new prices. Because they have reduced their consumption
of many goods, their standard of living would fall. This is due to the increase in the
cost of living.
People with fixed incomes such as pensioners or daily wage earners, manual
workers, small vendors, workers in small enterprises and in private low income
jobs etc. are all badly affected by continuous rise in prices over a period – called
inflation. The income of these people does not change when there is inflation. So
they are forced to cut down their own consumption of resources. Their standard of
living is already very low; now, inflation will further reduce their consumption,
which pushes them further into poverty.
People are always worried about the rise in prices because when prices increase,
it affects their consumption and they have to pay more for everything. For example
petrol prices increase, bus and auto fares increase, price of groceries, vegetables
and milk increase, doctor’s fee increase and so on.
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Tomorrow is teachers’ day. Your classmates give you Rs.200 and send you to
the market to buy some sweets and biscuits to celebrate this day with your
teachers. When you go to the shop, you find that the price of a sweets packet is
Rs.60, and a biscuit packet is Rs.20. If you buy 2 sweets packets, how many
biscuit packets can you buy with the remaining money? How much should you
pay?
When you come to school, your classmates say, “Why did you buy such few
packets? You should have brought 5 of each.” They are surprised when you tell
them the prices of sweets and biscuit packets. “Last year, we paid Rs.30 for a
sweets packet and Rs.10 for a biscuit packet,” one of them say.
What has happened in the last one year? Prices of both items have gone up, and
for the same amount of money, i.e. Rs.200, you can buy lesser amounts of
these commodities.
Suppose your classmates asked you to buy 5 packets of both sweets and biscuits
this year also. How much would you have to pay then?
• For 5 packets of sweets

= Rs._______________

• For 5 packets of biscuits

= Rs. _______________

• Total amount you pay

= Rs._______________

• How much more do you have to pay compared to last year?
The actual number of goods and services that money can buy is called the
purchasing power of money. During inflation, real income or purchasing power
of money falls. From the above example, last year you could pay Rs.200 for
five of each item, but now you have to pay more to buy the same items. Or you
have to buy less of both items. So:
Last year: Rs.200 = 5 packets of sweets + 5 packets of biscuits.
This year: Rs.200 = 2 packets of sweets + 4 packets of biscuits.
In other words, the purchasing power or the value of money of Rs.200 has
fallen, because you can buy less of both items with the same money, due to the
increase in their prices.
When people receive fixed income, they cannot afford to buy the same number
of goods as earlier. They have to reduce their consumption, buy lesser of these
goods and services. This affects their standard of living. Standard of living refers to
the quantity of material goods and services that ensures a comfortable life.
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The standard of living will of course differ from one type of family to another,
from one type of profession to another, from one income group to another, and
from one country to another. For example, having a car, television and mobile
phone may not be considered as a high standard of living in United States of America
but people owning these things in India would certainly be considered as people
having better standard of living.
Not everyone is affected by rising prices. For some groups, this rise in price
levels is compensated.
People working in Central and State Government offices and in some
organisations get an additional payment called “Dearness Allowance” or DA. When
prices rise by a certain percentage, their salary also increases because the
government now pays them more DA. Therefore their income also increases, along
with inflation.
People doing business activities recover the higher cost of living by
increasing the prices of goods they sell. For example, if price of sugar increases,
the mitaiwallah will increase the prices of sweets, the chai-wallah will increase
the price of a cup of tea.
People providing services such as dry cleaners, barbers, lawyers or doctors
increase their fee when prices increase. They charge more for their services from
their customers, clients or patients.
Extremely rich people and those working in corporate sector are less
affected by rising prices.
Not all working people get compensated easily for the rise in price of essential
goods. For instance, it is common to see agricultural labourers, construction
workers or factory workers demand their employers to raise their wages when
prices increase. Sometimes, their trade unions are compelled to go on strikes to
pay higher wages. On those occasions, government intervenes and negotiates with
employers and workers to increase the wages. For many occupations, government
also regularly fixes wages and revises them periodically after considering the
changes in price of essential goods (except daily wage workers and hired workers).

How Inflation is measured?
Earlier, we had mentioned that continuous rise in prices of goods is known as
inflation. But you may have observed that while some prices have increased, others
have fallen. For example, the prices of mobile phone have been falling, other prices
are rising. So overall, can we say that there is inflation in the country or not?
Again, supposing the price of match box increases. Does it really reduce your
cost of living? Compare this with the impact of an increase in house rent, or the
price of petrol or rice. Supposing the price of compact disk used in computers to
save data falls, how does it affect the budget of a manual worker who may never use
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a computer? If the price of an industrial machine increases, how does it indirectly
affect the budget of a large number of people?
Write down the names of some goods or services that are regularly bought
by your family. Find out their price today and the price last year. What is the
difference? You can ask your parents or teachers for help.
Sl.No. Goods/Services Price last year Price this year Difference
1
2
3
4

Price Index Numbers
Change in price is measured with the help of a statistical device referred to as
‘price index’. Change in prices of one good does not affect all goods and services
in the same way. So how do we measure the overall change in prices? One way is by
using an Index Number of Prices. It is constructed in the following way:
The average price of all the goods and services selected in the first year, which
is considered as the base year, is given the number 100. If, on an average, all the
prices of selected goods and services rise by 25 per cent over the previous year, the
price index for the second year will be 125. If, in the next year, prices of these
items rise by 20 per cent of the previous year, the price index will now stand at 150
(20% of 125 + 25 = 150).
Let us understand this through an example. The following table shows the price
of rice and cotton as paid by government organisations as part of MSP. Read the
table carefully and answer the questions that follow.

Table-2 Price of Cotton and Rice (per quintal) during 2005-2011
Crop

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08
Rs. 610

Rs. 775

2008-09 2009-2010 2010-2011

Rice

Rs. 600

Rs. 880

Rs. 980

Rs. 1030

Cotton

Rs.1980 Rs. 1990 Rs. 2030 Rs. 3000

Rs. 3000

Rs. 3000

(i)

Calculate the index numbers of rice and cotton by assuming 2005-06 as the
base year.
(ii) Draw a line diagram showing index number of rice and cotton. Keep the
years in x-axis and index numbers on the y-axis. Discuss how the line goes
up over the years.
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Index numbers tell us about changes in the total of a set of items over time.
They only compare these total items in one year, with the same items in another
year. In this way, the price index number shows the percentage change in the prices
of a set of goods from one time period to another. For instance, we can compare
what has happened to our household budget this year or this month with last year or
last month. The difference of price level of the two years shows the percentage by
which prices have increased in one year.
It can also be used to compare the price level in one place to that of another
place. We can compare the price level in Telangana with that of other states, like
Karnataka, or Maharashtra.
Since there are thousands of goods and services in the economy, we have to
choose which goods to include in the price index.
Price Index numbers are of different types, depending on which group of
consumers we are looking at – for example, we have the Wholesale Price Index
(WPI), the Consumer Price Index (CPI). While the WPI includes all goods (capital
goods and consumer goods) and changes in their wholesale rates, the CPI measures
only changes in prices of a few selected consumer goods at the retail price. In
India, different CPIs are published by government:
a) CPI for industrial workers
b) CPI for Urban Non-Manual Employees
c) CPI for Agricultural Labourers
The reasons why there are so many CPIs is because the same set of goods are
not consumed by different types of families. For example, the types and quantities
of goods and services consumed by industrial workers in towns and cities will
differ from rural agricultural labourers. Non Manual or White Collar employees
working in offices, banks, or IT companies consume a different set of goods
compared to agricultural labourers.
The CPIs are used to calculate the DA to be paid for government employees,
to revise legal wage rates as part of Indian government laws and also to estimate
the number of poor in India. Inflation is generally measured on the basis of changes
in WPI.

How to construct a CPI?
Let us try to construct a simple Consumer Price Index for some items that you
buy for your household consumption.
Let us take Table 3. Now, write down the amount of each of the items your
parents purchased last month. Let us assume that they are buying the same amount
this month also. But this month, prices have increased, so the same set of goods
will be costlier.
In this table, we have taken four goods, and their prices and quantities purchased.
We show this data for last month in the second and third columns. Then, we multiply
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the Price with the Quantity, to get the total expenditure on each item. Then, we add
up the total expenditure for all items in the last row of column 4.
Table -3

Estimating Consumer Price Index

This is an example of how CPI can be constructed. Let us assume that your family buys rice, onions,
dal, and gas cylinder.
1

2

Goods/Services

Last month’s
Price Rs.

Last month’s Expenditure
Quantity
Last month

This month
price

This month Expenditure
quantity
this month

1. Rice per kg

Rs.30

25 kgs

Rs. 750

Rs.40

25 kgs

Rs. 1000

2. Onions per kg

Rs. 10

5 kgs

Rs. 50

Rs.20

5 kgs

Rs. 100

3. Dal per kg

Rs. 75

4 kgs

Rs. 300

Rs.85

4 kgs

Rs. 340

4. Gas cylinder

Rs. 400

1

Rs. 400

Rs.410

1

Rs. 410

Rs. 1500

Total Expenditure

Total Expenditure

3

4=2x3

5

6

7 =5 x 6

Rs. 1850

In the same way in column 5, we show the price of the same items of this
month, and in column 6 we show the quantities purchased this month. Let us keep
these quantities the same as last month. Again we multiply each item with its price
and show our expenditure on that good in column 7. Now, adding up column 7
gives us total expenditure on these 4 goods in this month.
What do you see in Table 3? Your family had purchased these four goods last
month at Rs.1500. But, for the same set of goods, you now have to pay Rs.1850
this month, because prices of all goods have increased. Compared to the previous
month they have increased by Rs.350 i.e. in percentage terms
350/1500x100=23.3%.
In other words, if one assumes Rs 100 was spent by the family last month, this
month they would have to spend Rs.123.3. All families with similar consumption
pattern have similar affect on their budget - they would face a price rise by 23%.
The CPI is calculated in the same manner assuming the importance of various
items of expenditure in a family’s budget. This figure shows the extent of increase
in your cost of living.
If the average price level of these four goods last month was 100, it has now
increased to 123.3. That means, compared to last month, the price level of these 4
items of your household consumption has increased by 23.3% this month.
In the actual economy, there are thousands of goods and services being
produced and whose prices have been increasing. The government estimates the
amount by which the price level has increased in different time periods – mostly
every month and every week.
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Food Inflation
Since 2009, government began to estimate a new index - Food Price Index
(FPI). This index is used to estimate rise in prices of food items called food inflation.
The FPI consists of wholesale price of food materials such as rice, wheat, pulses,
vegetables, sugar, milk, eggs, meat, fish and manufactured food materials such as
edible oils. In 2011-12, edible oils accounted for higher food inflation. During that
year, about 50 per cent of India’s edible oil requirements were met through imports
of crude palm oil sunflower oil, soyabean oil and refined palmolein. When the price
of these items increased at the international level - in other countries from where we
import, Indian consumers also had to pay higher prices. Since then, the government
has to take measures to control the rising prices, many research studies were
conducted. It was found that the change in the dietary pattern of people has changed
considerably in such a manner that their consumption of vegetables, eggs, meat and
fish increased recently. Any seasonal shortage causes a price rise since the demand
for these products is quite high. People wish to consume them even at a higher cost.
It has become a part of their regular diet.

Recent price increases
During 2009-12, prices of many essential goods went up. You can see this
from the following figures. Look at the figure carefully and answer the questions
that follow.
Agricultural Products Wholesale Price Indices
(Base year 2004-05 = 100)

Paddy
Raw cotton

Pulses

Sugar, Jaggery

Edible Oils

If the price of the paddy in 2005-06 is Rs.20 a kg, then how much it will cost
in 2011.
In which years did the price of pulses increase considerably?
What is the percentage increase in the price of cotton?
Which commodity price has been more or less stable?
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You are aware that most of petroleum products such as petrol, diesel and
kerosene are made from crude oil mostly imported from other countries. The
increase in crude petroleum prices along with metal and chemical prices has led
to inflation in India. Inflation means general increase in the price of goods and
services over a long period. Since these are basically raw materials used to produce
consumer goods in India, the increase in their price led to increase in the price of
consumer goods.

Role of government in regulating prices
When there is general inflation - a rapid rise in wholesale price index, it is a
great concern for industrialists. If there is a rise in food inflation - it will have a
direct effect on the living standards of the common people. During high levels of
inflation, it is not only the people with low income or fixed incomes who suffer
and become poorer, other people would also tend to invest their savings by buying
land, gold or some other unproductive purposes due to uncertainity and their
perception that the value of their money is declining day by day.
There is always some inflation taking place in all economies. Due to this, the
consumers have to pay a higher price. Since the benefits of the increased price
will go to the workers who produce those goods, it is considered as good for the
country.
At times, traders whose main aim is to earn profit, raise prices of many goods
and particularly essential items in illegal ways. If there is no increase in wage for
workers who are also consumers in the market, they cannot buy the goods. When
these goods happen to be essentials such as wheat, rice, milk etc., this creates
problem for the people.
This necessitates the need for regulation of traders and keeping a close watch
on them by the government. The government is taking many initiatives in this
direction. You may recall the chapter on Agriculture in which you have learnt how
government helps farmers by procuring paddy and wheat through Food Corporation
of India using Minimum Support Price. This policy helps not only farmers but is
also used by the government to regulate the prices of paddy wheat in the market.
Similarly, governments both at the central and state levels, fix price for sugarcane
procured to make sugar in cooperative sugar mills. This is also one such measure
used to regulate prices of sugarcane in the market.
You might have studied in class VIII about public distribution system. It is used
as an important activity of the government not only to ensure food security to the
people and particularly the poor ones, but also to regulate the prices of essential
items. Under PDS, the government has assumed responsibility for the supply of
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essential commodities like wheat, rice, sugar, edible oils and kerosene. This scheme
is implemented by state government with the help of many fair price shops. The
prices of goods sold through Public Distribution System (PDS) are less than that
of the market price and the difference in price – or subsidy is borne by the
government. Apart from enabling the poor to buy goods from fair price shops, this
system controls unscrupulous rise in prices of essential goods in markets.
For preventing hoarding and keeping the prices of essential commodities within
reasonable levels and to facilitate their availability, the government fixes the prices
and makes it mandatory for the traders to sell goods in the market at those price
levels. Those who do not follow stipulated price levels are penalised by government
through various laws. Goods such as kerosene, diesel, Liquid Petroleum Gas,
Compressed Natural Gas and Piped Natural Gas are examples of goods whose
prices are partly or solely subsidised by the government and sold under
Administrative Price Mechanism.
Whenever there is price rise, the Reserve Bank of India, which is an apex body
for all the banks in India, reduces the money circulation in the economy. This it
does through regulating banks – asking banks to lend less or allow depositors to
withdraw less. The RBI along with all the banks under its regulation controls the
interest payments paid to depositors or received from the depositors. By controlling
the interest rate, the amount of money circulated in the country declines. This
results in people’s tendency to consume less, which in turn reduces the demand
for goods and thereby lowers the prices. However, it takes time to see the impact
of steps taken by RBI. At times, when the inflation is caused by rise in the prices of
raw materials, the measures or steps taken by RBI become difficult.
When the government decides to reduce the money in circulation, it imposes
taxes on high-income groups and on many consumer goods. The intention of the
government here is to reduce the purchasing capacity of the people. When people
have less money to spend, their consumption will also fall, which leads to decline
in prices.
Government also uses import-export policy to regulate the prices of essential
goods. For example, when there is a rise in the price of food materials, exports of
such goods are banned or the quantity of goods exported is restricted. When there
is shortage of any material, government procure from other countries and distribute
at below market prices through government organisations such as National
Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd (NAFED) and other
cooperatives. Government also uses legal mechanisms whenever traders create
shortage by hoarding.
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Key words
1. Standard of living
4. Wholesale Price Index

2. Inflation
3. Consumer Price Index
5. Administrative Price Mechanism

Improve your learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Why is there a need to regulate prices? (AS1)
How are prices fixed by a seller/producer? (AS1)
Differentiate the cost of living from the standard of living. (AS1)
Who is affected the most by increase in cost of living? Why? (AS4)
Which groups can still get higher incomes whenever there is inflation? (AS4)
How is Wholesale Price Index different from Consumer Price Indices? (AS1)
How is food inflation different from Consumer Price Indices? (AS1)
What are the uses of the CPI? (AS1)
Write any five issues that are considered while measuring CPI? (AS1)
How is Administrative Price Mechanism (APM) different from Minimum Support
Price (MSP)? (AS1)
11. Read sixth paragraph under the heading ‘Role of Government in Regulating Prices’
and answer the question: (AS2)
How does the APM affect the government revenue? Discuss.
12. Take any five goods or services used by your family and construct a Consumer
Price Index for your family based on these five goods/services. (AS3)
1

2

3

4= 2 x 3

Goods/Services

Last month’s
Price Rs.
This month

1.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

2.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

3.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

4.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

5.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

Total Expenditure

Rs.

Last month’s Expenditure
Quantity
Last month

Total Expenditure

5

6

This month
price

7 =5 x 6

This month Expenditure
quantity
this month

CPI:______________________%
By how much has your total expenditure changed compared to last month? ______________
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13. Write True or false against the statements given below : (AS1)
(a) Inflation increases the standard of living of the people.

[

]

(b) Value of money is shown by changes in its Purchasing Power.

[

]

[

]

(d) Central Government workers are compensated for inflation by rise in DA

[

]

(e) WPI measures changes in the price level of only consumer goods.

[

]

(c) Change in cost of living does not affect the standard of living of
pensioners

14. The following table shows the wholesale Price Indices of Industrial Goods. Prepare
a line diagram and answer the questions that follow. (AS3)
Year

Coal

Cotton
cloth

2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11

118
118
122
151
156
165

99
97
99
103
107
115

Fertilizers
102
104
106
107
108
117

Cement

Iron, Steel &
Ferro Alloys

102
119
138
139
149
151

100
105
119
137
124
136

(a) Which commodity’s price rose steeply over the years?
(b) What could be the reasons for a slow rise in the price of cotton cloth and
fertilizers?
15. Write a letter to your Tehsildar on proper maintenance of Public Distribution
System by indicating your suggestions? (AS6)

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CHAPTER

11

The Government Budget and Taxation

Role of the Government
In most modern societies, the government is responsible for a number of crucial
functions. These also include the more traditional functions like defending the
country and maintaining internal law and order.
In addition, the government has to take the responsibility of setting up and
running schools, colleges, libraries, health centers, hospitals, post offices and a
variety of other public institutions. The public transport system and the infrastructure
of roads and railways are constructed and maintained by the government. In providing
water, sanitation, electricity facilities, the government has to play an active role.
Facilities like healthcare and sanitation, electricity, public transport, schools and
colleges are known as public facilities.
The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its
benefits can be shared by many people. You have read about this in Class VIII. For
instance, a government school in a village will enable many children to get education.
Similarly, the supply of electricity to an area can be useful for many people: farmers
can run pump sets to irrigate their fields, factories, offices, shops and markets
require a reliable source of power to run, students will find it easier to study and
most of the people, whether in a village or a town, will benefit in some way or the
other. These public facilities have to be available to all and at an affordable rate.
Governments have the responsibility for this. It may take up the work on its own or
get it organised.
Besides the provision of public facilities, the government has the responsibility
towards protection of livelihoods. You have read about the Right to Work and the
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA ) in rural
areas. The Act mandates that it is the responsibility of the government to provide
manual work on demand and the wages to the workers and the capital needed are to
be paid by the government. The distribution of food grains at fair prices in the PDS
shops is organised and the subsidy borne by the government. As we have seen,
these are critical for the food security of the poor.
In the past, the Indian government has also played a major role in setting up
heavy industries such as heavy engineering, power generation, production of steel,
extraction and refining of petroleum etc. without which industrialisation would
have been very difficult. You read more about these basic industries in Chapter 7 in
this book.
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In rural areas, investments on irrigation
projects and agricultural extension works by the
government are crucial for farming. The
government also helps farmers by selling
Collect and list out some details fertilisers at a lower price than what would have
of government expenditure after been otherwise fixed by the factories. The
reading the newspapers of your government compensates factories to some
region.
extent so that the final price of fertilizers is
Can you guess from where does affordable for the farmers. This money, paid by
the government get money for the government to the factories, is the subsidy
public facilities and other for fertilisers. If this was not there, the price
charged by the factories would have been much
activities?
higher. Similarly, the government provides
subsidies for many products by compensating
Subsidies
the producer, so that the price is kept affordable,
Money paid by government to especially for those who need it the most. In this
reduce the cost of certain important way, it subsidizes the price of kerosene, food
goods such as fertilizers, foodgrains, grain from fair price shops, LPG gas cylinders
diesel and other important goods so etc. These days, there is a lot of debate on how
that their prices can be kept low and effective these subsidies have been. Are they
benefitting people? Are there better ways of
affordable to all.
organising them? You’ll read about some of these
issues in this chapter.
To fulfil the various
roles, the government must
have adequate money. The
money required for the
different functions of the
government is collected
from the people in the form
of taxes. There are a variety
of taxes that the
government collects about
which we shall study in the
Fig. 11.1: Some government activities
next sections. The taxes
collected constitute the revenues of the government. Revenues are necessary to
finance the expenditures of the government. The Annual Budget presented before
the Parliament by the Finance Minister gives the expected expenditure by the
government on its various programmes for the coming year. It also states how these
expenditures are going to be met through various revenue collections. Similarly, in
each state assembly, the state government presents the budget for that state.
In your city/ town/ village, what
are the roles that you have seen
the government playing? Discuss.

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Expenditures by the Government
Let us look at the actual expenditure of the Indian government to get a sense of
how and how much money the government spends on us. In 2011-12, the government
spent around Rs. 23,00,000 crores (23 lakh crores). This seems to be a lot of
money and indeed it is. Nearly one-fourth of the total spending in the Indian economy
is by the government. Rest of the three-fourth of the spending is by the private
sector – households that spend on food, education, travel, cloth, housing, health,
entertainment etc; and businesses
whether it is a manufacturing or a
service that have to spend on raw
materials, machines, other products,
wages and salaries to employees,
sales and marketing and other
expenses for running the business.
The pie-chart gives the proportion
in which this money was spent across
various expenditure heads by the
government in India in the year 201112, from 1st April 2011-31st March
2012. Here, the Government refers
to both Central government and all
the State governments. In the year
2011-12, 12% of the total
expenditure was on education, art and
culture. This includes both salaries of
employees, running costs of schools
and colleges, etc. as well as new investments like construction of new school
buildings, purchase of new computers, books etc.
Similarly, 4 % of the total spending was on health and sanitation; 4% was on
rural development, and so on.
When you look at the pie-chart, you will notice that besides spending on
development activities, there are certain other expenditures like administration,
pension, interest and defence. These do not contribute to development directly, but
they are necessary. To run its various departments, programmes and the organs of
the state (legislature, executive and judiciary), there are expenditures on
administration. The government also pays pensions to workers who have retired
from the government. Then, there are expenditures on interest payments. Since
every year, the Indian government has to borrow some money to meet its expenditure,
it has to pay interest on its past borrowings.
The amount that the government spends on health versus defence depends on
the policy priorities of the government and people’s voice. Every year, around the
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time of the budget and once the budget is presented, you would have seen there is a
lot of media attention on these issues. Though the decisions on budgetary spending
is mostly taken by the government, consultations happen between the government
and industry groups, farmer groups, civil society activists etc. Groups representing
certain sections of the people voice their views, demands and at times, their
disagreements before the government. It is through pressures of this kind that the
people have demanded greater spending on social sectors such as education, health,
food subsidy etc.
The check on the government on matters of budget is ensured through legislative
control. The Parliament has to debate the various issues of the budget that has been
placed before it and approve the expenditure proposals of the government. The
Parliament has to allow the government to withdraw money for its expenditures.
Similarly, no tax can be levied except by the authority of the law passed by Parliament.
Thus, as per the Constitutional requirement, the elected representatives of the people
have an important say in the budgetary decision-making.
Using the information in the above section, calculate the expenditure of the
government on food subsidy? Discuss the areas where this money was spent and
the purpose for this.
With the help of your teacher, try to relate to some of the expenditures in the piechart to the roles played by the government as discussed in Section 1.
In the year 1947-48, the budget for independent India was only Rs.197 crores.
What could be the reasons for such an increase in the budget since then?
Why do you think has the Parliament been given power over the government’s
budget?
There have been continuous attempts by the government to reduce fertiliser subsidy.
This means that the government would no longer control the price of fertiliser.
Farmers would have to buy fertilisers at higher market prices. At present, the
government has to pay (compensate) the fertiliser producing companies for the
losses they make. Once fertiliser subsidy is removed, it is said this would make
space for other important expenditures in the government budget. Some also argue
that subsidised fertiliser does not benefit the small farmer but only encourages
the large farmers to overuse it.
Imagine you are a farmer using fertilisers in farming, and you genuinely believe
that the farmers need subsidized fertiliser. How would you argue your case? Write
a letter to the Finance Minister.

Taxes
Taxes are the main source of revenue for the government. There are a variety of
taxes collected by the government. You might have heard about some of them like
VAT (Value Added Tax), service tax, excise duty, income tax, property tax, customs
duty etc. The taxes can broadly be classified into two categories: indirect taxes and
direct taxes.
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Indirect Taxes
Indirect taxes are charged on goods and services. You would have seen that
alongside the printed Maximum Retail Price (MRP) of goods it is written “inclusive
of taxes”. It means that the price includes taxes. Similarly, for most services like
telephone and mobile phone services, the price that consumers pay includes taxes.
Let us see how the taxes work by taking the example of a few important taxes.
Excise duty is charged on goods that are produced or made in factories. Before
the goods manufactured in a factory can leave the factory gate, excise duty on the
goods produced has to be paid. The owner or the manager of the factory pays the
money (tax) to the government according to the amount of production.
Excise duty is charged from the factory itself, but in reality the tax on is passed
to those who buy the goods. The factory owners sell their goods after adding the tax
to the price. The cost of manufacturing a TV is say Rs. 10,000. The company paid
an excise duty of Rs. 1200 to the government. This will get included in the price at
which the TV is finally sold and the consumer has to bear the tax.
While all taxes on goods add to the price, taxing certain goods raises the overall
prices more. For example, to
manufacture bicycles, steel
pipes are needed. In order to
make steel, the steel factory
needs iron and coal. If excise
duty (tax) on iron is increased,
it will have an effect on cycles
as well. The prices of all goods
made of iron will go up. And
since iron is used to make steel,
the prices of all things made of
steel will also go up. In this way,
a tax increase on iron has far
reaching effects.
Thus, taxing heavily on
basic raw materials and goods used by many other factories -intermediate goodssets up a chain reaction and all things which are connected to this good, in one way
or the other, are affected.
After production, the goods pass
through a chain of sellers (wholesaler/
distributor/ retailer). While excise duty
is levied on manufacture of goods,
sales tax is charged when goods are
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Petrol, diesel, etc. are used to run
vehicles, motor pumps, generators sets
etc. What will happen if the tax on diesel
and petrol goes up?

The Government Budget and Taxation

sold. Next time you receive a proper bill for your purchases of goods, you will see
that the price includes a VAT (Value Added Tax). VAT on your bill refers to the sales
tax, which the retailer has to pay to the government. Like the excise duty, the retailer
passes on the sales tax to the consumer and the consumer pays a higher price.
Let us look at the example of the TV mentioned earlier to see how the taxes add
up to the price. All figures are in Rupees.
The proportion earned as profits
Cost of manufacturing including
Rs.
and the taxes paid would vary from
profit of the manufacturer
10,000
one good to another good and also
Excise Tax
1,200
from one state to another state. The
Cost of Transport, Storage
1,000
important thing to remember is that
Profit to the Retail Traders
1,000
most goods carry an element of tax
Sales tax
1,650
as part of its price. Similarly, most
Price for the consumer
14,850
services are taxed, so that their final
price includes a tax element. The tax
In the example of the TV, what proportion on services is called service tax.
of the cost of the TV did the consumer Some common examples of service
tax include: speed post, telephone/
pay as tax?
mobile communication, restaurants,
Collect some bills which mention taxes.
AC class/first class train travel.
Collectively make a collage of the taxes
Another major tax on goods,
on goods. Make a separate collage of taxes
called customs duty, is charged on
on services with the help of your teacher.
goods when we import them from
See if there are other kinds of taxes that
other countries. For example, a
you come across.
person is returning from a foreign trip
If there are two people manufacturing the and has bought a new camera from
same goods and one of them evades paying abroad. At the airport in our country,
taxes, is it correct? Why?
she will have to pay a customs duty.
If the tax on iron is increased, what other Many factories need machines or raw
things will this affect? Give some material to be bought from foreign
countries. Customs duty has to be paid
examples.
on these things too.

Indirect Taxes as Value Added Tax (VAT)

• Tara bought two hard drives for her school computers from Sai Ram
Computers. The bill gave the total sale value before VAT at Rs.5,000. To this,
VAT was added at the rate of 5%. After adding the VAT amount of Rs.250, the
total sale price including VAT was Rs.5250.
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• Sajida has bought an inverter battery for her Particulars
Amount (in Rs.)
house. The shopkeeper gave Sajida a bill, Battery
9,165
which says:
Add VAT at 12.5%
1,146
• When Preeti paid for the LPG cylinder she
Total
10,311
noticed that the bill mentioned VAT as zero.
There is no VAT charged on LPG in some cities in India such as Delhi.
Over the last decade, the tax on goods has gradually been shifted towards a
Value Added Tax system, hence the name VAT. This is done for both excise and sales
tax. Let us read the following example to understand what it means.
Suppose there is a biscuit manufacturer. She regularly purchases raw materials
for production from a reliable person. The supplier from whom she purchases gives
her a bill that says:
Cost of materials
Raw Materials like
wheat, flour, sugar etc.

Rs. 90

Tax
Rs. 10

Total bill Paid
Rs. 100

Now, suppose she produces biscuits at the cost of Rs 450. This includes all the
costs that she has incurred - cost of materials, wages for staff and labour, rent for
office and factory etc. She adds Rs 50 as her own profit. So, Rs.500 is the value of
the output now. She sells the biscuits to a distributor. Remember, the manufacturer
will have to pay taxes on selling his biscuits. Let the tax rate be 10%. How much tax
does she has to pay?
Under the old system, the biscuit manufacturer would have to pay Rs.50 (i.e.,
10% of Rs.500) to the government. In total then, the government has collected Rs.
10 + 50 as tax. Rs. 10 was paid by the supplier and included in the bill that she paid.
Under the system of Value Added Tax (VAT), the producer only pays tax on the
value added. Rs.500 is the worth of the output. And Rs.100 is the worth of the input
for production (raw materials). The value added is simply the difference between
the value of output and input, which is Rs.400 in this case. At the rate of 10%, he
has to pay Rs.40 as tax. The inputs used in production that have already been taxed
once are not taxed again. In this system, the government will collect Rs 10+ 40
=50 as tax, on the whole.
You can see that the tax paid by the manufacturer under Value Added Tax system
is smaller since she does not have to pay tax on inputs. Production of industrial
goods go through long chains and depend on many goods produced in different
factories. In the value added system, inputs are not taxed again. Hence, in this system,
the total tax on goods is less and therefore it should cost less.
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There is another advantage of Value Added Taxes. All producers and traders will
have to keep genuine record of their sale and purchase. Everyone has to keep proper
records and ask for bills for purchase. It
What is your opinion about value
is only on this basis that they can show
added taxes? Discuss.
the tax already paid on the cost of inputs.
Fill in:
The tax department (tax inspectors) will
The purchases by Tara, Sajida and be able to match records of the seller and
Preeti show ___________ tax rates purchaser for verification. Non- payment
across goods. (same/ different)
of tax, which is very common, is expected
Can you guess why this should be so? to be more difficult.

Direct Taxes
We pay taxes on goods and services that we buy/consume. We have seen how
the producer or the trader adds the taxes to the final prices which consumers have
to pay. As the goods pass through a number of stages of production and sale, at each
step the taxes are paid to the government. However, the total tax is finally passed to
the consumer. Thus, taxes on goods and services are also called indirect taxes.
Consumers pay it but indirectly.
In addition, there are taxes which are directly charged to individuals directly on
their income or directly on the profits earned by companies and business. These
taxes have to be paid directly by the individuals or businesses to the government
and hence are called Direct Taxes.
There are two important direct taxes – Income Tax and Corporate Tax.
Companies that run factories or businesses have to pay taxes. Companies or
businesses receive money from the sale of their products or services. After
subtracting all expenses (on raw materials, salaries etc.) from their earnings, the
portion that remains is known as the profit of that company or factory. On this
profit, corporate tax has to be paid according to the rules.
Income tax is charged on personal income of individuals. There can be a variety
of sources of individual incomes like wages, salaries and pensions. An individual
can also earn interest income on money that is kept in banks. A person might also
get rent on properties that he owns like house rent. All these are considered as
incomes on which taxes have to be paid. Income tax is charged only for those who
earn above a certain amount. This is charged as a percentage of the income earned.
Those who earn a higher income have to pay a greater proportion of their income as
tax.
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What is the fair way of collecting tax from income?

1. You might think it would be fair for everyone to pay the same amount of tax. Consider
the following three people:
Person

Work

Earning per month Tax as fixed amount
(in Rupees)
per month (in Rupees)
Jyoti
Daily wage labourer
1,500
50
Asif
School teacher
8,000
50
Nithesh Business person
30,000
50

Would it really be fair if each of the three people has to pay the same amount? If
Jyoti cannot even afford to feed her children properly, is it fair for her to pay 50
rupees as tax?
2. You might think it would be more fair to ask each person to pay a certain percentage
of what they earn as tax. Supposing everyone paid 10% in taxes, calculate how
much each person would pay.
Person

Jyoti
Asif
Nithesh

Earning per month Tax as fixed amount
(in Rupees)
per month (in Rupees)
1,500
8,000
30,000

Would this be fair? Still Jyoti may not have enough to live. Asif may not have enough
for repairing of his house. But Nithesh would have plenty of money for all the basic
necessities even if he had to pay 20% of his income as taxes.
3. To make taxes more fair, only the people earning more than a certain amount say
Rs. 7000 per month have to pay taxes. You might also say that the richest people
should pay greater proportion of their earnings as taxes. For example
If you earn (in Rupees) You will pay as tax
Less than 7,000
0%
7001 to 15,000
10%
15,001 to 25,000
20%
More than 25,000
30%
Calculate how much each person will pay.
Person

Jyoti
Asif
Nithesh
138

Earning per month Tax as fixed amount
(in Rupees)
per month (in Rupees)
1,000
6,000
20,000

Social Studies

Would this be fair?
The Government Budget and Taxation

Fairness in Taxation
What kind of taxation we follow depends on the values that the society as a
whole holds. Most societies feel that it is not fair that a few people have lakhs of
rupees, while others don’t have enough to eat. The government should collect more
taxes from the rich and the poor should not be taxed or taxed minimally. If the
society as a whole aspires, the taxes so collected can be spent to raise the income
of the poor by providing better opportunities and living conditions. Notice that as
the incomes of the poor improve, more taxes can be collected!
As in the example of Jyoti, Asif and Nithesh, in most countries across the world,
the government taxes those with a higher income at a higher rate. According to the
rules of income tax, those with higher incomes have to pay greater part in the taxes.
Those who are less wealthy pay not only lower taxes, but a smaller proportion of
their income as taxes. Hence, direct taxes are preferred but in India, as you read in
the previous section, the major source of tax is indirect i.e on goods and services.
Whether rich or poor, everyone has to pay the same amount of tax when buying
something. The poor “feel the pinch” as they say.
While levying taxes on goods and services, it becomes difficult to distinguish
between the poor and the rich. There is, however, a way by which the distinction
between some goods can be made. For example, grains, pulses, vegetables, cloth,
kerosene, cooking oil, cooking gas etc. are goods that are essential. Rich or poor,
everyone buys them but the poor spend almost all of their income on these goods.
Then there are goods and services which only the rich can purchase: cars, laptops,
air-conditioner, dining in restaurants etc. It is difficult for the poor to afford these
luxuries. Hence, one way to distinguish between the rich and the poor is not to tax
the essential things but to tax luxury items. (Remember what may be considered as
luxury today might become necessities in the future as living conditions improve.)
The problem is that since not many people can afford to buy these luxury items,
taxing only such things cannot bring much income to the government.
There is another consideration that the government has to keep in mind in taxing
goods and services. There are a number of goods and services that are not directly
used by people, such as diesel, steel, aluminium, machines, trucks, truck tyres etc.
Such things are used in making or transporting other things. You can imagine the
large number of places - industries, factories and businesses where these might be
used. People do not buy them directly for consumption.
We saw that when tax is increased on things such as steel, diesel etc, this increase
gets added to the cost of goods which are made out of them or transported with
their help. With this, even the poor who buy grain or cloth have to pay some part of
the tax on diesel or steel. When such things are taxed, the price of many other
things goes up. Thus, we often hear people saying:
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“The increase in the price of
petrol and diesel has led to an all
round increase in prices. Fruits,
vegetables, pulses and other food
items, for example, have become
more expensive.”
For this reason, the question that
troubles everyone each year is: which
taxes should be increased more?
Taxes can be collected more easily on
goods, but except for luxury items,
taxing essential goods affects the
poor greatly. Taxes charged and
collected have a strong impact on
people’s lives. The tax on income falls
more heavily on the rich and therefore
can be considered more fair. But the
taxes from income might not be
enough to cover the large government
expenditure. Any budget has to take all
these considerations into account.
That is why the time of the budget is
of great importance for everyone.

Collection and Evasion of Taxes
The government gets money from
different kinds of taxes. It has to
decide how much money to collect
through each kind of tax. For this, it
has to consider: how many people
would have to pay; whether this tax can
be collected easily; how would it
affect the rich and the poor. A mother
related question is whether people pay
their taxes or evade it.

We read about some of the major taxes
collected by the government. Fill the blanks
in the table from the information given
below. Income Tax: 12%; Corporation Tax:
24%; Customs Duty: 10%; Excise Duties:
16%; Service Taxes: 5%; Sales Tax: 23%;
Other Indirect Taxes:10%.
Taxes Collected by the Government
Taxes
Direct Taxes

Percentage of Total Tax
36%

Indirect Taxes

Total Taxes

100%

1. Which kind of taxes generate more revenues
for the government?
2. Kranti has an income of Rs. 1,75,000 per
year and has to pay an income tax of Rs.
3000. Kamlesh's annual income is
Rs.3,00,000 and he has to pay an income
tax of Rs.5,500.
• Who pays more income tax?
• Who has to pay a larger part of the income
as tax?
• In such a situation, the person with higher
income is paying a _________ (smaller/
greater/ equal) part of the income as tax.

You know that a large number people in our country depend on agriculture.
Most of them are small and medium farmers. There are also some large farmers
with high incomes. However, all agricultural income is exempted from tax.
Similarly, a large section of people in the country earn very low income whether
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from trade or running small shops or providing labour. The income of these people
would be below the limit for income tax. Thus, the percentage of total number of
people who could be paying income tax is small.
Even this small percentage of people from a large population implies that tax has
to be collected from a sizable number of people. For example, in 1997 the incomes
of 114 lakh individuals were assessed for income tax. They would be living in different
places in the country. Collecting income tax is not easy. There are many hurdles.
Many people do not disclose their entire income or show it to be less than what it
actually is. This income, which is kept hidden, is known as black money.
Many factory owners, rich moneylenders, traders, those doing private business
can easily show a low income. It is easy to calculate the income of those who are
paid monthly salaries. Tax on their income is directly deducted at the source from
where they get their salaries. But many salaried persons also have other sources of
income which they keep hidden. Such people, whether they are workers, officers,
ministers or clerks, often do not disclose their income correctly. Because there is
no tax on income from agriculture many wrongly show their income as income
from land and therefore, evade tax.
Thus, there are many ‘tax evaders’ and the black money, that is the money on
which tax should have been paid but wasn't, goes on accumulating. To get hold of
this hoard of black money, the income tax department raids many people's houses
and offices. It has also tried to make the procedures more convenient for people to
pay their own tax. Despite these efforts, a large number of people do not pay income
tax or pay less than they should.
On the other hand, taxes on goods can be collected more easily since there are
fewer places from where it has to be collected. Excise duty is collected from
factories, customs duty from international airports and seaports and sales tax from
traders and shopkeepers. As compared with income tax to be paid by individuals,
the government finds it easier to keep a track of these factory records or shops.
Even here, there are those who try to escape taxes by showing lower production
than has actually taken place. Sales tax is evaded on a wide scale. Some traders, by
not issuing proper bills or recording it in their official registers, show much lower
sales than what actually occurred. VAT, as we saw in this chapter, is intended to
reduce the evasion of taxes on goods and services.

Key words
1. Annual budget
4. Corporate tax
7. Income tax

2. Black money
5. Direct tax

3. Value Added Tax
6. Indirect tax

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Improve your learning
1. Why does the government need a budget? Why does the budget talk of taxes? (AS1)
2. What is the difference between income tax and excise duty? (AS1)
3. Match the following: (AS1)
i. Excise duty
a) levied on the yearly income of individuals.
ii. Sales tax
b) levied on the yearly profit of companies and business
establishments.
iii. Customs duty
c) levied on the production or manufacture of goods
iv. Income tax
d) levied when goods are sold.
v. Corporate tax
e) levied on goods brought from abroad
4. You are expected to pay taxes on steel, matches, clocks, cloth, iron; a tax increase
on which of these would affect the prices of other commodities the most and
why?(AS1)
5. Ordinary food items, such as grain, pulses, oil are used by all. Then why is it said
that imposing tax on them will have a greater effect on the poor? (AS4)
6. A group of four friends decided to stay together by contributing money towards the
rent of a house. The rent was Rs.2000 per month. (AS1)
• How could this be shared among them?
• Two of them earned Rs.3000 per month and the other two Rs.7000 per month. Is
there some other way of sharing the cost so that each one of them feels the same
pinch?
• Which way of sharing would you prefer and why?
7. Tax on income or tax on commodities; which of the two affects the rich more and
which affects the poor more? Explain with reasons. (AS1)
8. How would VAT reduce the evasion of taxes on goods? (AS1)
9. What is the difference between Excise duty and Customs duty? (AS1)
10. Has there been there any hike in the bus fares recently? If so, try to find out the
reasons for it. (AS4)
11. Read the paragraph under the heading ‘Direct Taxes’ (Income Tax is charged only
for ...) and answer the following: (AS2)
Why do high income earners pay more tax?
12. What is the effect of black money on our economy? (AS6)

Project
Bring a few wrappers of soaps, toothpastes, tablet strips or any other things of daily
use which contain MRP. Discuss the rate mentioned and the rate at which they are
sold. Talk about the profit that the retailer gets.
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CHAPTER

Changing Cultural Traditions in Europe 1300-1800

12

You would have read about Europe in class VII. Try to recollect some of the
important aspects of Europe. Look at the map of Europe and locate Turkey, Greece,
Italy, Spain, Germany, France, Holland, Britain etc. Look for cities like Istanbul,
Rome, Florence, Paris, London, etc in the map.
In this chapter, we will read about a major cultural transformation which took
place between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries not only in Europe but also in
other parts of the world like Turkey, Iran, India and North Africa. The word ‘culture’
relates to aspects of human activity such as
Discuss in the class the kind of
literature, music, dance, painting, sculpture,
changes that are happening today
architecture, religious beliefs and even
in some of these aspects like science.
films, buildings, religious beliefs,
Culture has been changing constantly in all
music etc. What are the changes ages. Even today, you can observe rapid
that you observe around you? What changes in our cultural life.
is causing these changes?
As mentioned above, cultures are
constantly changing. Even then, there was something special about the changes
that took place in the world between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, that is,
between 1300 and 1600 CE. Firstly, people of different countries were eager to
learn from the people of other countries. Secondly, they started going back to the
old literature that had long been forgotten in order to learn new things. Moreover,
they now understood that each human being is special and important and should
have his own way in the world. In the field of arts, a new style of painting and
sculpture developed which tried to portray people, nature and their surroundings
realistically, capturing their momentary moods and feelings. These were only some
of the new developments taking place around the world at the time. These changes
were important because the new culture gave people the confidence to adopt new
ways of thinking which we today consider as modern ways of thinking.

Periods in European History

upto 400 AD
400 AD to 1300 AD
1300 to 1800 AD
1800 to present

-

Europe in the Ancient and Medieval
Periods

Ancient Period
In the ancient period till about 400 CE,
Medieval Period
Early Modern Period Europe was dominated by the Roman
Empire. The Roman Empire controlled
Modern Period
Note that the years mentioned are approximate. most of Europe, Turkey and Egypt for a long
Different historians may use different classifications. time. There were many great cities like
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Rome and Alexandria in this period. They carried forward the
culture that had been developed by the Greeks. The sculpture,
painting, buildings as well as literature, philosophy and science
of Greece and Rome were exceptionally rich. You may have
heard of great thinkers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle and
mathematicians like Euclid and Pythagoras from Greece. They
carefully studied the human beings, society and the world
around them and tried to understand them better.
The Romans carried out trade with distant countries like
India. In fact, we can also find a large number of Roman coins
in the ancient towns of India. They also influenced our art to a
large extent, especially in the North West India. The Greek and
Roman society was based on exploitation of slaves - people
who had been captured in war and sold to buyers. They worked Socrates Marble Roman
artwork 1st century – A
on the farms, mines, workshops and houses. The free citizens
great Greek thinker who
of Roman Empire voted to elect the Senate which had encouraged the youth to
considerable powers.
question everything and
However, the Roman Empire declined after 400 CE. The
examine everything
logically.
period from 400 CE to 1300 CE is called the Medieval Period.
During this period, there were no large empires in Western
Europe. The cities had also declined and most people now lived
in villages. There was very little trade. Europe was now
dominated by a social system called Feudalism. Feudalism was
a system where warrior-landlords had political power and
controlled the villages and peasants. The peasants were mostly
‘serfs’ who were not free. They were dependent upon their
landlords for everything. They were controlled by their lords
Coat of arms/emblem of
and had to till their lands, work in their workshop and fight for
the Pope which was
them in wars. They also had their own lands where they worked dominant during medival
period
to sustain their families. The lords were constantly at war with
each other. This created a lot of insecurity for the peasants and they depended upon
the lords for protection. The smaller lords were bound to serve the bigger lords
who promised to protect them in times of danger. In this way, all men were bound
to each other by ties of dependence and domination.
Christianity, which had emerged during the first century –around 100 CE, had
become the dominant religion in Europe replacing the older religions followed in
the Roman Empire. The Roman Catholic Church dominated the religion and culture
of the people and tried to turn people away from the culture of the Roman Empire.
The church discouraged people from thinking for themselves and asked them to
believe what the priests told them. As Feudalism grew stronger in Europe, the great
cultural achievements of the ancient period were slowly forgotten and lost. People
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Try to find out more about some of the great Greek thinkers
like Socrates, Aristotle, and Pythagoras etc. Why do you
think the Church wanted people not to know about them?
Slavery had declined in the medieval period but people
were still not free to do what they wanted – can you explain
the reasons for this?
You have read in Class VIII about the zamindari system
and vetti in Hyderabad state. Compare it with ‘serfdom’ in
Europe.

began to adopt Christian
beliefs without questioning. Church discouraged them from thinking
about the material world
and human beings.
Instead it encouraged
them to think more
about heaven, saints and
god.

The Medieval Period in Asia
Interestingly, things were quite different in most of Asia. In Arabia, Persia, Iraq
and Northern Africa, the new religion of Islam was spreading and new political
powers had emerged. In India, several small kingdoms had emerged along with
numerous towns. Turkish rule had been established in northern India around the
beginning of the thirteenth century. All this meant that kings, soldiers, traders,
scholars, religious people, artists, artisans etc were moving from one place to
another, learning new things and making new things. It was, indeed, a great period
of learning and creativity in Asia.
The Arabs established their empire in a region which was an intersection of
several great cultures like China, India, Iran, Africa and Europe. They brought with
them books and ideas from all these areas, translated them into Arabic and made
new contributions to them. They traded with countries as far away as Italy, India
and China. They also developed systems for regular flow of goods across continents.
They established their control over large areas and developed centralized political
and administrative systems. Their scholars studied science, philosophy, mathematics
and religion from the using ancient books from India, China and Europe.
Three great empires had emerged in Turkey, Iran and India before 1550: the
Ottomans in Turkey, the Safavids in Iran and the Mughals in India. It was in this
background that the cultural change began in Europe too.

The Beginning of Early Modern Period
The situation started changing in Europe after 1300 AD. The peasants started
resisting and fighting against serfdom, and the control of the lords and the Church.
For example, there was a great revolt of peasants in England in 1381 which ended
serfdom in England. Similar movements were taking place in other countries too.
The control of lords and the church over people slowly decreased and people enjoyed
more freedom. Long distance trade between European countries and China, Arabia,
India and Egypt was reviving.
Among the European countries, Italy was the first to benefit from urbanization
and trade. Many new towns and cities came up where traders and artisans lived.
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Many of these cities were politically independent and ruled themselves through
municipalities. Two of them - Florence and Venice - were republics, and many
others were cities ruled by princes.
One of the liveliest cities of Italy was Venice, another was Genoa. They were
different from other parts of Europe. The Church and powerful feudal lords were
not politically dominant here. Rich merchants and bankers actively participated in
governing the city, and this built the idea of citizenship. The people felt proud in
being citizens of such city states.
A large number of scholars, artists and artisans came to these new emerging
cities in search of employment and
How do you think trade helps in the
patronage. The new rich people of these
cities wanted to make a name for
development of towns?
themselves as patrons of art and builders.
Do you think there is a greater
They invited the artists, architects and
possibility of knowing more and
scholars to work for them. Interestingly
trying out new things in towns rather
enough, some of the important patrons
than villages? Discuss.
were powerful members of the Church like
Have you seen people from distant
the Popes, and the Cardinals and Bishops.
places live in places near you? In what
Traders, artisans, scholars and artists
ways do you think they help in the
travelled widely and many of them visited
spread of ideas from one place to
and lived in places as far away as Egypt,
another? Give examples while
Turkey and Persia. They exchanged goods
discussing.
and ideas and learnt much from those
cultures. Thus, they were able to bring new ideas to all these countries.

Humanism
A new movement for studying old Latin and Greek literature started among the
scholars in Europe from around 1300 or even a little earlier. These scholars were
inspired by the new challenges which trade, urbanization and the emergence of new
states posed and the new opportunities for employment. They studied ancient Latin
literature and felt that it helped people to use language correctly and effectively
and to think in a systematic manner. The study of these classical books, especially
those relating to grammar, logic, poetry, philosophy and history was called
‘Humanism’ or Humanist studies. Petrarch is considered as one of the early
Humanists of Italy. He was unhappy with what he considered as the use of faulty
language by his countrymen and began to study old classics to find out the correct
ways of writing. He gradually became convinced that these books were important
not only to know the right use of language but also to train the mind to think and
understand the world. The city of Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman
Sultan Mehmed II in 1453. This city had a large number of old Greek Books and
scholars who had studied them. The Turks got them translated into Arabic and Turkish.
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Many of them also travelled to Italy with their books. Studying old Greek books of
Plato, Aristotle etc now became an important part of Humanist studies.
The Humanists were convinced that such a study would enable a youth with both
thinking abilities and practical skills like translation, letter writing, making speeches,
pleading a case in a law court, negotiating in trade or diplomacy etc. They set up
schools for teaching these and also used the new technology of printing to publish
and make the old books available in large quantities. Interestingly, the Humanists
did not promote writing in the old classical languages like Latin or Greek and instead
wrote in languages spoken by ordinary people like Italian, English, and Flemish etc.
In what ways was this Humanist studies different from the studies of the previous
period? In the previous period most learning was focused on religious matters, and
the scholars did not dare to express views contrary to that of the Church. Now the
learning focused on matters relating to human beings, their lives and loves, their
thinking, their political systems, and economic lives. Often the scholars, even those
who depended upon the Church, wrote against the views of the Church. For example,
a Latin scholar called Vella studied some documents of the Church which claimed
that Emperor Constantine had given it some power. He proved that it was a forgery
done by the Church to improve its status. Another famous Humanist from
Netherlands, called Erasmus, studied the writings of the early Greek Christians
like the New Testament of the Bible in original Greek and pointed out the errors in
translation of the Bible done by the Church. He criticised some of the beliefs of
the Church and said that these were based on superstition.
Another important scholar was Machiavelli, whose book The Prince (1513)
studied the real politics of his times and advised the rulers on how to obtain absolute
power without bothering about ethics or morality. Thus we see that Humanism began
with a study of ancient literature to make the language and thinking more effective
and cultured, but slowly it turned towards the study of the real world of human
beings and began to turn against the Church. Its lasting effect was not only to promote
Who were the humanists and the idea of liberal education but also giving autonomy
to the scholar and intellectual.
what did they teach?

Artists and Realism
The Humanist ideas extended to art and architecture too. In visual arts like painting
and sculpture, this took the form of ‘realism’. Artists studied ancient Greek and
Roman art and architecture and drew inspiration from them. They admired the figures
of ‘perfectly’ proportioned men and women that had been sculpted so many centuries
ago. Italian sculptors wanted to continue that tradition. They also studied Persian
and Chinese art and styles. They were greatly impressed by the richness of colours
used by them and were eager to import those pigments. They were motivated to
observe nature, people and places around them and represent them in their paintings
and sculptures as they were. For this, they took the help of the works of scientists.
To study bone structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas
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Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian professor of medicine at the University of Padua,
was the first to dissect the human body. This was the beginning of modern physiology.
Many artists like Leonardo da Vinci studied human anatomy so that they could
make their painting and sculpture realistic.
“Art” is embedded in nature; he who can extract it, has it… The
more closely your work abides by life in its form, so much the
better will it appear…No man shall ever be able to make a beautiful
figure out of his own imagination unless he has well stored his
mind by much copying from life.’ - Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
This sketch by Durer (Praying Hands) gives us a sense of Italian culture
in the sixteenth century, when people were deeply religious, but also
had a sense of confidence in man’s ability to achieve near-perfection
and to unravel the mysteries of the world and the universe.

Painters found that
knowledge of geometry helped
them to understand perspective.
They also understood that by
noting the changing quality of
light, their pictures acquired a
three dimensional quality.
The use of oil paint as a
medium for painting also gave
a greater richness of colour to
paintings. In the colours and
designs of costumes in many
paintings, there is evidence of
the influence of Chinese and
Persian art. Thus, Realism, a
new form of Italian art
developed with the help of new
subjects like anatomy,
geometry, physics, as well as a
strong sense of what was
beautiful. Realism continued till
the nineteenth century.
Fig. 12. 1: The statue ‘The Pieta’ by Michelangelo depicts
Thus the art of the
Mary holding the body of Jesus.
Renaissance was very different
Perspective - a way of depicting different things
from the religious art promoted by the on a painting so that we can feel the depth in the
Church in the feudal times. The religious painting. This is done by showing objects in front
art emphasised religious themes and as larger and objects behind as smaller.
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depicting people and
things according to some
ideal forms. Art was
supposed to represent
those ideals and not the
reality around them.
Now, the artists of
Renaissance began to
portray themes from
their surroundings, and
from Greek and Roman
literature, depicting the
feelings, power and
strength of human beings. Interestingly, the Church also encouraged this new art.
Popes and other leaders of the Church commissioned great artists like Michelangelo
and Raphael to paint for them and design Churches and chapels for them. The artists
also made elaborate graves and memorials for the Popes and bishops and designed
cathedrals and churches and also
Do you think it is important for artists to covered their walls with paintings
paint things as they are, that is realistically? which are today considered among the
Give reasons.
best paintings ever.
Have you seen any painting by any famous
The artists of Renaissance,
artist? If so talk about it to your class mates. however, showed little interest in the
Was it realistic? What impression did it lives of the poor and their sufferings.
make upon your mind?
On the other hand, they were keen on
Why do you think the Popes and bishops showing the rich, powerful and
successful people through this art.
encourage the new art?
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) had an amazing range of
interests from botany and
anatomy to mathematics and art.
He painted the Mona Lisa (on
left) and The Last Supper. One of
his dreams was to be able to fly.
He spent years observing birds
in flight, and designed a flying
machine. He signed his name as
‘Leonardo da Vinci, disciple of
experiment’.

Architecture
We read earlier that the rich culture and art of Europe had been slowly forgotten
with the growth of feudalism. However, in the fifteenth century, the city of Rome
was revived in a spectacular way. The Popes actively encouraged the study of Rome’s
history. Architects studied the ruins of old Roman buildings to revive the old Roman
style. This style used tall pillars, arches and domes in buildings. A new style in
architecture called ‘Classical’ style came up. Classical style was a revival of the
imperial Roman style. Popes, wealthy merchants and aristocrats employed
architects who were familiar with classical architecture. Artists and sculptors were
also asked to decorate buildings with paintings, sculptures and reliefs. Another
remarkable change was that unlike earlier, artists were known individually by name,
not as members of a group or a guild.
Some individuals were skilled equally as painters, sculptors and architects.
The most impressive example is Michelangelo (1475-1564). His most remarkable
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Fig. 12.2: St Peter’s Square, Rome and the basicilca. This Church and the court in front of it
was designed by several artists including Michealngelo and Bernini. They used many
architectural ideas from Ancient Rome.

works are – the ceiling he painted for
the Pope in the Sistine Chapel, the
sculpture called ‘The Pieta’ and his
design of the dome of St Peter’s Church
in Rome.

Describe the different scientific elements
in the work of sixteenth century Italian
artists.
What efforts did the artists make to achieve
realism in their painting and sculpture?

The Printing Press
If people in other countries wanted to see paintings, sculptures
or buildings of great artists, they had to travel to Italy. But in the
case of the written word, what was written in Italy travelled to
other countries. This happened because of the greatest revolution
of the Sixteenth century – the mastery of the technology of
printing.
Earlier, texts and books were available only in a few handwritten copies. The Chinese first developed paper and printing
with blocks. In 1455, Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1458), the
German who made the first movable printing press. He printed
150 copies of the Bible in the time taken to copy one book with Johannes Gutenberg
hands. This new technology transformed the world of scholars.
As printed books became available, it became possible to buy them. Students did
not have to depend only on lectureThere was no printing press in India during the
notes. Ideas, opinions and
same period. Let us suppose Krishnadeva Raya
information spread more widely and
wrote a book. How do you think it would have
faster than ever before. A printed
reached scholars in different parts of India?
book promoting new ideas could
quickly reach hundreds of readers.
What do you think would have been the
This also made it possible for
reaction of kings and priests to the Printing
individuals to read books, since it
Press? Would they have welcomed it or would
was possible to buy copies of the
they have been worried by it?
book for oneself. This developed
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The Renaissance was considered a New Age,
because people considered it proper to pursue
pleasure, seek wealth and comfort and also act
in self interest. This was in contrast to
teachings of religions that one should not act
in self interest and forsake comfort and wealth.

the habit of reading among people.
The humanist culture of Italy spread
more rapidly in Northern and
Western Europe from the end of
the fifteenth century because of the
printed books.

The Aspirations of Women
The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from
aristocratic families dominated public life. They were the decision-makers in their
families. They educated their sons to take their place in family businesses or in
public life. Sometimes, they sent their younger sons to join the Church. Even though
the dowries women got at the time of marriage were invested in the family
businesses, women generally had no right to involve in their husbands’ business.
Often, marriages were intended to strengthen business alliances. If parents did not
have adequate money for dowry, daughters were sometimes sent off to convents to
live the life of a nun. Obviously, the public role of women was limited. They only
had the role of keepers of the households.
The position of women in the families of
merchants, however, was somewhat different.
Shopkeepers were often assisted by their wives in
running the shop. In families of merchants and
bankers, wives looked after the businesses when the
male members were away on work. If a merchant
died at young age, his widow had to perform a larger
public role. This was not the case in aristocratic
families.
There were a few women who were intellectually
very creative and understood the importance of
humanist education. Venetian scholar Cassandra
Fedele (1465-1558) wrote ‘Even though the study
of literature promises and offers no reward for
women and no dignity, every woman ought to seek
and embrace these studies’. She was one of the few
women who disagreed with the idea that women could
Isabella d'Este
not achieve the qualities of a humanist scholar. Fedele
was proficient in Greek and Latin, and was invited to give lectures at the University
of Padua.
Fedele’s writings tell us about the general regard for education in that age. She
was one of the many Venetian women writers who criticised the republic ‘for creating
a highly limited definition of freedom that favoured the desires of men over those
of women’.
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Another remarkable woman was the Marchesa of Mantua, Isabella d’Este (14741539). She ruled Mantua, a small state, while her husband was absent. Her court
was well-known for its intellectual brilliance. Women’s writings revealed their belief
that if they want to achieve an identity in a
In what way do you think women of
world dominated by men, they should have
those times have benefitted from
economic power, property and education.
studying Greek and Roman books?

Debates within Christianity (Reformation)
You had read earlier that the Catholic Church had dominated the religious and
cultural life of people in medieval times. The Catholic Church claimed that all
Christians had to be its members, give contribution to it and follow its dictates.
This was quite unlike other religions like Islam or Hinduism which did not have
any formal organization of this kind. It also believed that all kings should be
subordinate to the Church and carry out its dictates. As such, there was no question
of giving people the freedom to practice their own religion or even practice
Christian religion in their own manner. It was asserted that all Christians had to
perform seven important rituals or sacraments and this could be administered only
by the priest of the church. In other words no one could lead a religious life without
the mediation of priests.
In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many
scholars from the universities and members of the
Churches in North Europe too were attracted to humanist
ideas. Humanists like Erasmus encouraged the
Christians to practise religion in the way it was written
in the ancient texts of their religion. They asked people
to stop the unnecessary rituals, which they criticized as
later additions to a simple religion. Their view of human
beings was as free and rational beings who could think
on their own. Later philosophers were inspired by the
belief in a distant God who created man but gave him
complete freedom to live his life freely, in pursuit of
happiness ‘here and now’. Christian humanists like
Thomas More (1478 -1535) in England and Erasmus
Holbein-Erasmus
(1466-1536) in Holland felt that the Church had
become an institution marked by greed. The Humanists
also translated the Bible into regional languages and printed them in large number
so that more and more people could read it and see for themselves that many of the
claims of the Church were not based on the Bible.
This criticism of the Church by the Humanists found support among the ordinary
people and even the kings. The ordinary people were feeling burdened by the
exactions of the Church in the name of religion. In most countries, people had to
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pay about one tenth of their earnings as ‘tithe’ or contribution to the Church. In
addition, kings of different countries had to send large amounts of money to the
Pope. Moreover, the Popes had found a new method of extracting money from the
people by selling ‘indulgences’. Indulgences were documents that apparently freed
the buyer from the burden of the sins he had committed.
Even in the earlier periods, there had been a number of revolts against the
authority of the Church and its close relationship with the feudal lords. They
demanded for simple forms of worship and removal of priests and feudal lords.
Even though these movements had been suppressed, their influence remained among
the people.
The new kings, who were building powerful kingdoms, also began to resent the
political interference of the bishops and control of the Popes over them.
In 1517, a young German monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a
campaign against the Catholic Church. First of all, he opposed the idea that man
could get rid of his sins by buying the ‘indulgences’ sold by the Church. He argued
that a person did not need priests to establish contact with God. He asked his
followers to have complete faith in God’s grace. He taught that humans can get rid
of their sins not by any external rituals but only through internal purification through
God’s grace. He taught that faith in God’s grace could guide them to the right life
and give them entry into heaven. He was able to reach a large number of people
through the use of printing press. The Pope
A Time line 16th & 17th Centuries
responded by throwing Luther out of the Church
Thomas More's Utopia
in 1520. But many German princes supported
1516
published
Luther and no action could be taken against him.
Martin Luther writes the
1517
This movement was called the Protestant
Ninety-Five Theses
Reformation as it protested against the Church.
Luther translates the Bible
1522
into German
The churches in Germany and Switzerland broke
their connection with the Pope and the Catholic
Peasant uprising in Germany
1525
Church. In Switzerland, Luther’s ideas were
Andreas Vesalius writes on
1543
popularised by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and
Anatomy
later by John Calvin (1509-1564). The Protestant
Anglican Church estabished in England,
1559
with the king/queen as its head
Reformers were very popular in towns. They were
also supported by the merchants in towns.
Gerhardus Mercator prepares
1569
cylindrical map of the earth
Other German reform movements, like the
Gregorian calendar introAnabaptists, were even more radical. They mixed
1582
duced by Pope Gregory XIII
together the idea of salvation and the end of all
William Harvey links the
1628
forms of social oppression. They said that God had
heart with blood circulation
created all people as equal. So, people were not
Academy of Sciences set
1673
up in Paris
expected to pay taxes and had the right to choose
their priests. This appealed to the peasants who
Isaac Newton's Principia
1687
Mathematica published
were oppressed by feudalism. They also argued that
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people should be free to choose to join the Church on becoming adults and children
should not be forced to follow the religion of the parents. They called for tolerance
for diverse religious beliefs and freedom for people to choose their own religion.
The rulers of those times could not tolerate these views and they suppressed the
Anabaptists with ruthless force. Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, burnt alive as
many as thirty thousand Anabaptists.
A major achievement of the reformists was that they translated the Bible into
popular languages of the people. They printed large numbers of the Bible and made
them available to all the people. Earlier, Bible was available only in Latin which
ordinary people did not understand.
The ideas of Reformation also became popular in Germany, Holland, France and
England. In all these countries, people with diverse faith or interpretations of
Christianity emerged. Thus, the monopoly of the Catholic Church was forever broken.
The Catholic Church was also
impacted by these ideas. It started to
What were the issues on which the
reform itself from within. In Spain and
Protestants criticised the Catholic Church?
Italy, churchmen emphasised the need
Do you see any similarity between the
for a simple life and service to the
Bhakti movement in India and the Protestant
poor. In Spain, Ignatius Loyola set up
movement? Do you also see any
the Society of Jesus in 1540, in order
differences between the two of them?
to reform Catholicism and oppose
Do you think religious texts should only be
Protestantism. His followers were
in the language understood by the common
called Jesuits, whose mission was to
people? Give your arguments.
serve the poor and to widen their
knowledge of other cultures.

Beginning of the Modern Science
In the Middle Ages, people accepted the
knowledge passed down by their forefather as
authority without questioning. Most men were not
interested in investigating the world in which they
lived. The few who were interested used strange
mixtures of magic and superstition. But Roger
Bacon was a serious searcher for truth. He
performed experiments with metals and chemicals
and probably also had a crude microscope. He
worked on theories that suggested the practical
usefulness of many inventions of that time,
including steamships, automobiles and airplanes.
Despite Bacon’s work, the true scientific spirit
Statue of David by Michelangelo.
did not develop until late in the Renaissance.
Knowledge of detailed human body was
necessary to design a sculpture like this
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Long after Roger Bacon, a
Polish astronomer, Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543), made
use of the scientific method. He
built an observatory from which he
patiently studied the movement of
stars and planets. He concluded
that the old theory of the universe
taught by the Egyptian geographer
Ptolemy was wrong. According to
Ptolemy, the earth is the center of
the universe and the stars, sun, and
planets revolve around it. Even the
Church adopted the views of
Ptolemy as it believed that the
Universe had been created by God
Fig. 12.3: Galileo explaining his theories of universe
for man. So, the Earth was the
with telescope.
centre of the Universe.
Copernicus’s theory was opposed to this idea. He argued that the Sun was at the
centre and the Earth and the other planets revolved around the Sun. The Church
rejected the new theory as contrary to the teachings of the Bible and the Church. It
seemed to rob man of his dignity because he was no longer in the very heart of a
universe that had been made for him.
Galileo (1564-1642), an Italian genius, made a telescope that made it possible
for him to see a ship fifty miles away as clearly as though it was only five miles
away. This instrument also helped in the study of astronomy. Galileo was a very
popular and brilliant lecturer and writer. Discussing the theories of Copernicus, he
told his audiences how he himself had seen the moons of Jupiter and the revolution
of the planet on its axis. He was asked to appear before a Church court, where he
was forced to take back all his teachings or suffer long imprisonment. It is said that
as he left the trial, he was heard muttering, “But the earth does move.” Galileo also
discovered certain laws of the pendulum which
Who were the Renaissance made it possible to develop more accurate
scientists, and how did each of them clocks. In his experiments from the Leaning
Tower of Pisa, he proved that heavy and light
contribute to science?
objects fall at the same speed.

Explorations of sea routes
During the same period, Europeans also expanded their limited knowledge of
Geography. There were several reasons for this. The magnetic compass and the
astrolabe had now been invented. These instruments helped sailors with the direction
in which they were going and their location. Ships were improved so that they were
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more seaworthy. The more thoughtful sailors now doubted that they would fall off
the edge of the earth if they went too far out to the sea. Better maps were made for
their guidance, too. Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453 and the
Ottoman kings levied new taxes on trade between the West and East. European
traders began to look for new routes to reach eastern countries like India. All these
conditions increased an interest in geography and willingness, sometimes even an
eagerness, to explore the new sea routes.
The navigators of Portugal and Spain played an important part in the geographical
explorations. Prince Henry a navigator from Portugal, discovered a sea route to
the western coast of Africa. Finally, Bartholomew Diaz, a very able Portuguese
navigator, sailed around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern most point of
Africa. Vasco Da Gama went around Africa and landed in Calicut, India in 1498.
India had finally been reached after sailing around the vast African continent.
Christopher Columbus determined to find a new route to the east. He believed
that the eastern shores of Asia lay across the Atlantic Ocean, and so he set out with
three small ships to get there. After a long, dangerous voyage, Columbus reached
land on an island on October 12, 1492. He thought that he had reached the East
Indies and called the natives, Indians. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor, followed
Columbus. He confirmed that the place discovered by Columbus was not Asia but
a new continent which came to be called America after him.
Ferdinand Magellan, a sailor from Spain, made the voyage round the world
with financial support from the Spanish King, Charles I. He crossed the Atlantic,
went around the southern tip of South America and sailing through the straits, he
reached the Pacific Ocean and landed at the Islands of Philippines. This voyage
was a great landmark in the history of exploration of the sea routes.

India and the Renaissance
When Renaissance, Humanism and Reformation were sweeping across Europe,
India too was undergoing profound cultural changes. It was the time of the rule of
the Mughals and the Vijayanagara and Bahmani kings. It was also a period of refined
styles of painting as can be seen in the Mughal miniature paintings and wall paintings
of Vijayanagara. During this period of ambitious public architecture, kings built
massive temples, mosques, forts, palaces etc. The artists learned their art from
diverse sources. The Indian painters, for example, learnt much from the Persian
painters and also from the artists of the Renaissance, copies of whose paintings
reached India. In addition, they built upon the tradition of painting on palm leaf
manuscripts using bright colours as practiced by the old Indian painters. Similarly,
in Architecture, we see a mixture of styles in
both Vijayanagara and in the Mughal buildings.
Read the map 2 and prepare a list
In religion too, this was the time of great
of exlplorations of sea routes.
reformers like Kabir, Ravidas, Tukaram, Mira
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Map 2: Geographical explorations.
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etc. who not only preached against orthodoxies but also talked of direct access to
God through devotion and service to fellow human beings. They too composed
their works in popular languages. However, India did not make use of the printing
press and did not see a scientific revolution. Can you think of the difference these
changes would have made to the future development of India?

Key words
1. Feudalism

2. Serfs

3. Renaissance

5. Realism

6. Reformation

7. Protestant

4. Humanism

Improve your learning
1. Discussion on Renaissance in this chapter was mostly in the context of
_______ (England/Italy/France/Germany) (AS1)
2. Write a sentence or phrase about the changes in ideas listed below during
Renaissance. (AS1)
a. Humanists: from ________ to ___________
b. Books: from ____________ to ___________
c. Paintings: from ___________ to ____________
d. Human beings: from ___________ to ___________e. Women: from _____________ to ____________
3. How did printing of the Bible influence the ideas about God and Church? (AS1)
4. Compare the modern Italian towns with those of the Medieval towns. Do you
notice any changes in their present names? (AS1)
5. Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries? (AS1)
6. Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism? (AS1)
7. What were the features of humanist thought? (AS1)
8. Do you agree with the following statement; “Printed books continue to dominate
our lives” Give reasons for your answer. (AS4)
9. Write an account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth century
Europeans. (AS1)
10. Mention the outstanding features of the renaissance architecture and why? (AS6)
11. Observe the map 2 given on the page 155 and locate the geographical explorations
on the world outline map. (AS5)
12. Read the para 4 of page 150 and comment on it. (AS2)
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13. The following graph indicates the increase in book production. What can
you tell about it? (AS3)

Project
1. Collect pictures of great Renaissance artists and prepare an album.
2. Prepare a play on the debate between Galileo and a priest who did not believe that
the earth went around the sun.
3. Study the various ways in which we use products made in the printing press today
and prepare a detailed report

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CHAPTER
CHAPTER

13

Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions
17th and 18th Centuries

Today, we are used to the idea of democratic form of government in which
elections are held periodically and the elected representatives make the laws and
run the government. All the citizens have fundamental rights and are treated as equals
by law. However, this kind of democracy was not there in the earlier times. Countries
were ruled by kings or emperors who made laws at their will and the society was
divided into high and low castes or
How different would our lives have been
estates, each had its privileges and
if we were ruled by kings?
obligations. In this chapter, we will
What would happen if all people were not
read briefly about how people fought
equal before law – and some had special
to build democratic political systems
privileges like the right to kill others?
and achieve social equality.
Like any other country of Europe,
England was also ruled by Kings and Queens at the beginning of the 17th century.
England was ruled by kings of the Tudor dynasty. At that time, the Pope was the head
of the Roman Catholic Church. But the Tudor kings refused to accept the authority
of the Pope. This was, in a sense, the beginning of English nationalism - the idea
that England should be independent of the Pope and Roman Catholic Church. Soon,
another new conflict started between the Parliament and the King as to who was
more powerful in the kingdom. The Parliament was dominated by the representatives
of landowner and merchant class; and the king needed the approval of this Parliament
to impose any tax or approve new laws. Let us see how this conflict led to the
establishment of a democratic government in Britain.

England – The Civil War and the Glorious Revolution
In 1603, James I of Stuart Dynasty became the King of
England after the death of the last queen of Tudor dynasty. He
did not want the Parliament to question him. He believed that
the absolute powers of the king were given by God, so the
Kings ruled by a Divine Right. Therefore, he believed that the
king should not be controlled by the Parliament.
James I was succeeded by Charles I, the new king. Charles
I dissolved the Parliament and ruled for 11 years without any
Parliament. But in 1640, he needed money to fight some wars.
So, he was forced to summon the Parliament to get special
grants. This Parliament continued to function for 20 years
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from 1640 to 1660 (and hence, it is called the Long Parliament). The Long
Parliament decided to control the autocracy of the King and his ministers. The
parliament punished the ministers and officers of Charles I. It stopped the working
of special courts created by the King. Charles I took advantage of its differences
within the Parliament and tried to arrest his opponents in the parliament. A Civil
War started between the parliamentary party and the king’s party, which lasted for
5 years. Ultimately, Charles I was defeated and executed in 1649 and England became
a republic.
However, this experiment of republican government was not very successful
and did not last long. In 1688, William of Orange and his wife, Mary (granddaughter
of Charles I), were invited by the Parliament to occupy the throne of England. In
the new system of government, ministers were answerable to the Parliament and
the King had limited powers. This was the beginning of parliamentary democracy
in England. Now, the power of the king was not a divine right but it was granted by
the Parliament. All this took place without shedding a drop of blood or firing a
single shot. This transformation, therefore, is known as ‘Glorious’ or ‘Bloodless
Revolution’.
You will note that the Glorious Revolution did not end the power of the king or
that of the old landlords. However, it created a system in which there was a sharing
of power between different segments. Slowly, the control came into the hands of
the House of Commons which represented the middle class.
In this period, only the people with land and property had the right to vote in
the elections to the Parliament. The seats in different areas had not been allocated
according to the population. As a result, many low population areas had a large
number of seats while high population areas did not have any seat. The common
people of England started asking for the right to vote and wanted changes in the
system. In 1832, the voting rights were given to more people and some of the
irregularities of the system were removed. The right to vote was gradually extended
to different sections of the population and eventually to all adults by 1928. Thus,
Parliamentary form of government grew in stages in England.
How did it become possible for the people of England to develop a
parliamentary democracy? Many factors helped in this process. Firstly, England
had a powerful middle class of traders, lawyers, and rich landowners etc who wanted
a share in political power. They wanted to make laws which suited them and their
needs. They didn’t want laws that would go against their interests. They tried to
protect and increase their rights.
Secondly, the middle class was able to emerge as powerful because trade and
commerce of England was developing rapidly after a nationalist and centralized
rule was established by the Tudor kings. Tudors also took steps to expand England’s
rule over colonies in America.
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Moreover, after the Reformation, many religious, social and political
movements took place in England. These movements helped people to think
independently and fight for democracy and equality. There were several religious
sects who were against the Church controlled by the King and wanted religious
freedom. There were also many movements which wanted to end social and
economic inequalities – they were called the Levellers and Diggers as they wanted
to bring everyone to the same level and dig the very foundations of the unequal
society. There were democrats who
Why do you think the House of
believed that all human beings are
Commons and the middle class agreed
independent and should only accept
to share power with the king and the
laws which they have agreed to. They
landlords and not remove them and
also believed that the rulers should be
establish a republic?
representatives of the people rather
than autocrats. All these diverse views
What are the diverse social and
asserted the need to dispose of the old
economic views that you know about in
system of complete power of the king
your state? Find out about them in detail
and privileges of the landlords and
and give a presentation in the class.
bishops.

American Independence (1774-1789)
By the middle of the 18th century, England had established
its colonies on the eastern coast of North America. Thirteen
states had become colonies of the British. Most of them were
occupied by people from England who had moved to America
and settled there to cultivate lands, run small workshops and
conduct trade. The English Parliament started forcing its power
on these colonies by making laws for the American states. But
the people of those states did not vote in the elections to the
Parliament.
Till 1750s, the American colonies were inhabited by small
Thomas Jefferson
and middle sized farmers who owned the land and tilled it too. It
also had a large number of artisans and traders. However, these colonies did not
have any powerful landlords or princes as in Europe or India. Thus, there was a
degree of equality among the people. Again, there was no single prominent religion
in these colonies. While most of the people were Christians, they belonged to
different sects and each sect had its own church. This meant that the priests did not
have the same authority and social position as in Europe. Many prominent Americans
inspired and reinforced social equality in America. Many of them like Tom Paine
and Thomas Jefferson actively campaigned for political equality and freedom of
thought for all people. In fact, their writings also inspired some of our great leaders
like Jyotiba Phule to fight for social justice and equality.
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The English Parliament often passed laws
that favoured English traders and factories
rather than American people of the colonies.
The American colonies, therefore, raised the
slogan
‘No
Taxation
without
Representation’. In 1774, representatives
from twelve colonies, met at a Congress at
Philadelphia to protest against the British.
They requested King George III to restore
their previous rights. But the King refused
to do so and tried to suppress the colonies.
Fig. 13.1: The first image is called
‘Columbia’. This was replaced with
This led to armed clashes between the British
Statue of Liberty to symbolise USA.
and the American soldiers.
The Second Congress also tried to find a peaceful solution. They appealed to
the King not to impose taxes without their permission. The King saw this as an act
of rebellion and declared war in April 1775. The Americans finally won the war in
October 1781 with the military help from France. The American War of
Independence ended after Britain signed the Treaty of Paris in 1783 and recognised
the independence of its thirteen colonies.
The Declaration of Independence was adopted
Republic: Where the head of the state on 4th of July 1776 during the Third Congress at
is a democratically elected president, not Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson was the author of
a monarch.
this Declaration. It declared that all men are created
Congress: A formal meeting or series of
equal and are endowed by the Creator with certain
meetings for discussion between
rights, which cannot be taken away, including life,
delegates or members of a group
liberty and pursuit of happiness. In 1789, the
government of the United States of America adopted a Republican Constitution.
The United States of America would not be ruled by kings but by representatives
elected by the people.
The constitution adopted by America was a unique one. It tried to guarantee
maximum freedom to its people and the thirteen colonies or states which came
together to form the United States of America. With Jefferson’s efforts, political
power was divided between the states and the federal or central government in such
a way as to give maximum autonomy for the states to have their own laws, their own
police etc. A Bill of Rights was passed which guaranteed fundamental rights to all
citizens. This bill also guaranteed freedom of speech and religion. Besides these,
the American constitution also ensured
Compare the results of the English and
that all political power did not get
American Revolutions? Which one
concentrated in the hands of one
managed to build entirely new principles office. It tried to separate the different
of government?
kinds of powers like the power to make
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163

laws, to administer the country
Can you think of why America was able to
and to give justice. It sought to
establish a democratic republic while England
create a balance of power
could not?
between those who made laws,
In what ways did the American constitution ensure
i.e. the Legislature, those who
maximum freedom for its people?
implemented the laws and
How would it affect us if the makers of the law
administered the country, i.e.
were also the ones who implemented and also sat
the Executive and those who
as judges in courts?
punished those who violated
the law, i.e. the Judiciary. All
this led to the establishment of the United States of America (U.S.A.).

French Revolution
In 1774, Louis XVI became the king of France. He was 20 years old at that
time and married to the Austrian princess, Marie Antoinette. After becoming the
king, Louis XVI found that the treasury of the country was empty. Long years of
war had emptied the financial resources of France. Besides, the cost of maintaining
the extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles was very high. Under
Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence
from Britain, who was their common enemy. This war added further to the debt.
The state was forced to increase its taxes to
meet its regular expenses such as the cost of
1st estate
maintaining the court, an army, and running
government offices or universities. Yet, even
Clergy
this money was not sufficient.
French society in the eighteenth century
was divided into three estates. The first estate
was the clergy. The second estate was the
nobility and the third estate included the
remaining sections of society such as
merchants, lawyers, peasants, labourers and
servants. However, only the members of the
third estate had to pay taxes. This system of
estates was a part of the feudal system from the
middle ages before 1789.
The chart shows how the system of estates
in French society was organised. Peasants were
about 90 percent of the total population of
France. However, only a small number of them
owned the lands they cultivated. About 60 per
cent of the land was owned by the Church and
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Social Studies

2nd estate
Nobility

3rd estate
Big businessmen, merchants,
court official, lawyers etc.
Peasants and artisans
Small peasants,
landless labourers and servants
A Society of Estates.
Note that within the Third Estate some
were rich and others poor.

Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 17th & 18th Centuries

other richer members of the Third Estate. The members of the first two estates,
that is, the clergy and aristocracy, enjoyed certain privileges. The most important
of those was that they did not have to pay taxes the state. The nobles also enjoyed
other feudal privileges. These included feudal dues that peasants had to pay to them.
Peasants were also forced to give other services to the lord - to work in their
houses and fields and to serve in the army or participate in building roads.
The Church also extracted taxes called ‘tithes’ from the peasants. All the
members of the Third Estate also had to pay taxes to the state. These included a
Livres - Unit of currency in France, discontinued in direct tax, called ‘taille’ and a number of
indirect taxes which were levied on
1794.
Clergy - Group of persons invested with special articles of everyday consumption like salt
or tobacco. The Third Estate alone had to
functions in the church.
pay taxes to finance the activities of the
Nobility - Aristocratic and bureaucratic class
Tithes - A tax levied by the church, comprising one- state. To add to this problem, there was a
tenth of the agricultural produce.
failure of crops and increased sufferings
Taille - Tax to be paid directly to the state.
of the poor during those years.
Fill in the blank boxes in the figure below with appropriate terms from among
the following: Food riots, Social unrest, increase number of death, rising
food prices, weaker bodies.
Scarcity

The poorest can no
longer buy bread

of

Food

Disease
epidemics

A Growing Middle Class: An End to Privileges
In the past, peasants and workers were the only people who revolted against
increasing taxes and food scarcity. But they did not have the means and programmes
to protest and change the social and economic system. So, a new group of people
came up in the Third Estate. These were people who had money, good education
and new ideas. They started representing the revolt against the government.
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Fig. 13.2:
Opening
ceremony
of the
Estates
General at
Versailles
on 5th
May 1789.

This new social group which came up in the eighteenth century was collectively
called the middle class. They earned their wealth through overseas trade and
manufacturing of goods such as woollen and silk textiles. In addition to merchants
and manufacturers, the Third Estate also included professions such as lawyers or
administrative officials. All of these people were well educated. They believed
that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social
position must depend on his qualities. Philosophers like John Locke and Jean
Jacques Rousseau wanted to create a society based on freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all. In his book, Two Treatises of Government, Locke wrote
against the belief that the monarch had absolute rights. Rousseau carried the same
idea forward. He proposed that government should be based on a social contract
between the people and their representatives. In the book, The Spirit of the Laws,
Montesquieu proposed that power should be divided between the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary. This model of government was used in the USA, after
the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain. The American
constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for
political thinkers in France.
The ideas of these philosophers were discussed by common people in salons
and coffee-houses. These ideas were spread among people through books and
newspapers. They were frequently read aloud in groups for those who could not
read and write. The news that Louis XVI was planning to impose more taxes on the
people to meet the expenses of the state made people angry. They started protesting
against this system of privileges of the king.

The Outbreak of the Revolution
Louis XVI had to increase the taxes for reasons you have learnt above. How do
you think he did this? At that time in France, the monarch did not have the power to
impose taxes according to his own will. Rather he had to call a meeting of the
Estates General who would then pass his proposals for new taxes. The Estates
General was a legislative body where the three estates sent their representatives.
However, the monarch alone could decide when to call the meeting of this body.
The last time it was done was in 1614.
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Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 17th & 18th Centuries

Fig. 13.3: The Tennies Court Oath. Sketch of a large painting by Jacques-Louis David. The
painting was intended to hung in National Assesmbly.

On 5 May, 1789, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General to pass
proposals for new taxes. A magnificent hall was prepared for this meeting in
Versailles. The First and Second Estates sent 300 representatives each, who were
seated in rows facing each other on two sides. But, the 600 members of the Third
Estate had to stand at the back. The Third Estate was represented by its more
prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were not allowed
to enter the assembly. However, their problems and demands were written down in
some 40,000 letters which the representatives had brought with them.
Earlier, each estate had one vote in the voting. Louis XVI also wanted to continue
the same practice. But the members of the Third Estate demanded that voting be
done by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. This
was one of the democratic principles suggested by philosophers like Rousseau in
his book, The Social Contract. When the King rejected this proposal, members
of the Third Estate left the assembly in protest.
The representatives of the Third Estate felt that they were representing the
whole French nation. On 20 June, 1789, they assembled in the hall of an indoor
tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves as a National
Assembly. They swore not to go back till they had drafted a Constitution for France
that would limit the powers of the monarch.
While the National Assembly was busy drafting a Constitution at Versailles,
there was rising chaos and disturbance in the rest of France. The crops had ruined
because of extreme winter. The price of bread went up because of this. Bakers
misused this situation and accumulated supplies of bread. People waited for hours
in long queues at the bakery. After waiting for long, crowds of angry women
forcefully entered into the shops. At the same time, the King had ordered troops to
move into Paris. On 14 July, the angry crowd forcefully entered and destroyed the
Bastille, a hated prison that represented the complete monarchy.
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In the countryside, rumours spread in Manor: An estate or plantation consisting of the
villages that the lords of the manors had hired lord’s lands and his mansion/house.
bandits who were coming to destroy the ripe Chateau: Castle or stately residence belonging
crops. The peasants in several districts got to a king or a nobleman.
fearful and took up their hoes and pitchforks
and attacked the chateaus. They looted the collected grain and burnt down documents
which contained records of their dues to the manor. A large number of nobles fled
from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries. After seeing
the power of the revolting people, Louis XVI finally gave recognition to the National
Assembly. He accepted the principle that his powers would be limited by a
Constitution from now on. On the night of 4th August, 1789, the Assembly passed
a law to ban the feudal system of taxes and other obligations. Members of the
clergy were also forced to give up their privileges. Tithes were banned and lands
owned by the Church were taken back from them. As a result, the government
collected assets worth at least 2 billion livres.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy
The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in 1791. Its
main object was to reduce the powers of the monarch. Now these powers were not
in the hands of one person. They were now separated and given to different
institutions - the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a
constitutional monarchy.
The below figure explains how the new political system worked. The
Constitution of 1791 gave the National Assembly the power to make laws. This
Judiciary

Executive

Legislature
Control

Judge

National Assembly

King

(745 members)

VETO
ol
ntr
Co

VOTE

Ministers

VOTE
Electors
(50000 men)

VOTE

168

ACTIVE CITIZENS: Entitled to vote.

(about 4 million of a
population of 28 million)

PASIVE CITIZENS: No voting rights.

(about 3 million men,
women, children and youth
below 25 age)

Social Studies

The political system
under the
Constitution of
1791

Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 17th & 18th Centuries

National Assembly was indirectly elected. But all the citizens did not have the right
to vote. Only the active citizens had the right to vote. Active citizens were men
above 25 years of age, who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage.
The active citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly.
The remaining men and all the women were classed as passive citizens. To become
an elector and a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the category of
highest taxpayers.
The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality
before law, were considered as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights. This means that the
rights belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the
duty of the government to protect the citizen’s natural rights.

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
1. Men are born and remain free and equal in
rights.
2. The aim of every political association is the
preservation of the natural and inalienable rights
of man. These are liberty, property, security
and resistance to oppression.
3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the
nation; no group or individual may exercise
authority that does not come from the people.
4. Liberty consists of the power to do whatever
is not injurious to others.
5. The law has the right to forbid only actions that
are injurious to society.
6. Law is the expression of the general will. All
citizens have the right to participate in its
formation, personally or through their
representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
7. No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.
8. Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of
such liberty in cases determined by the law.
9. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax
is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
10. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a
legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given
in advance.
(Note: The above list is not complete. It is only a selection of ten.)
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The situation in France continued to be tense during the following years. Although
Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he started secret negotiations with the King
of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries were also worried by the
developments in France. They wanted to suppress these revolts. So, they made
plans to send troops to stop the events that had been happening since the summer
of 1789. But before this could happen, the National Assembly decided to declare
war against Prussia and Austria in April 1792. Thousands of volunteers from different
parts of France joined the army. They felt that this was the war of the people against
kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
Most people felt that the
revolution should be continued
further because the Constitution
of 1791 gave political rights
only to the richer sections of
society. People started coming
together at political clubs to
discuss government policies and
plan their actions. The most
successful of these clubs was that
of the Jacobins, which got its
name from the former convent of
St Jacob in Paris.

[Look at the chart on page 168] Which groups
of French society would have gained from the
Constitution of 1791? Which groups would have
had reason to be dissatisfied?
Imagine the impact of the events of France on
neighbouring countries such as Prussia, AustriaHungary or Spain, all of which were absolute
monarchies. How would the kings, traders,
peasants, nobles or members of the clergy have
reacted to the news of what was happening in
France?

The members of the Jacobin club were Convent: A building belonging to a community
devoted to a religious life.
mainly people from the less wealthy sections
of society. They included small shopkeepers,
artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants
and daily-wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.
In the summer of 1792, the members of the Jacobin club planned a revolt of a
large number of people of Paris. They were angry because of short supplies and
high prices of food. On the morning of August 10, they entered the Palace of the
Tuileries forcefully, killed the king’s guards and held the king as hostage for several
hours. Later, the National Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections
were held. From then on, all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got
the right to vote.
The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September, 1792,
the Convention banned the monarchy and declared France a Republic. As you know,
a republic is a form of government where the people elect the government including
the head of the state. Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were sentenced to
death by a court in 1793 for treason.
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Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 17th & 18th Centuries

The Reign of Terror
The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre,
the leader of Jacobin club, followed a policy of strict control and punishment. He
arrested, imprisoned and then tried all the people he saw as ‘enemies’ of the republic.
They included ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even
members of his own party who did not agree with his methods. If the court found
them ‘guilty’, they were guillotined. Robespierre’s government issued laws placing
an upper limit on wages and prices. All the people were allowed to have only a
fixed amount of meat and bread. Peasants were forced to send their grain to the
cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. The use of more expensive
white flour was forbidden. All the citizens were required to eat the pain d’égalité
(equality bread), a loaf of bread made of whole wheat. Churches were shut down
and their buildings were converted into barracks or offices. Robespierre
implemented his policies so strictly that even his supporters wanted him to relax
the policies. Finally, he was convicted by a court in
Guillotine: Beheaded by a machine
July 1794, arrested and sent to the guillotine.

A Directory Rules France
With the fall of the Jacobin government, the wealthier middle classes came to
power. A new Constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied
sections of society. It elected two legislative councils. These councils appointed a
Directory, an executive team made up of five members. They did this to ensure that
the power did not come under a one-man executive as under the Jacobins. However,
the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils. So, legislative councils
asked to dismiss the directors. The political instability of the Directory led to the
rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon finally captured power
and declared himself the Emperor of France. Most democrats felt that this was a
betrayal of the French Revolution.
Through all these changes in the forms of government, the ideals of freedom,
equality before the law and fraternity kept inspiring people. These ideals motivated
political movements in France and the rest of Europe during the following century.

End of Monarchy in France
The political and constitutional changes that happened because of the French
Revolution led to the transfer of control from monarchy to the French citizens.
The revolution proclaimed that the people should constitute the nation and decide
its destiny. The revolutionaries felt that France could also help the other nations of
Europe to become free from the rule of kings and monarchs and become nation
states.
Under the Jacobin constitution, all the people were given the right to vote and
right of revolt. The constitution stated that the government must provide the people
with work or livelihood. The happiness of all was the aim of government. The
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government abolished slavery in the French colonies. Even though it was never
really put into effect, it was the first genuinely democratic constitution in history.
However, Napoleon’s rise to power was a step backward. Even though he
destroyed the Republic and established an empire, the idea of the republic could
not be destroyed. After the defeat of Napoleon, the old ruling dynasty of France
came back to power. But within a few years, in 1830, there was another revolution.
In 1848, the monarchy was again overthrown though it soon reappeared. Finally, in
1871, the Republic was again proclaimed.
The Revolution took shape with the support and blood of common people –
the city poor and peasants. In 1792, workers, peasants and other non-propertied
classes were given equal political rights for the first time in history. The peasants
also got their lands.
But the right to vote and elect representatives did not solve the problems of
the common people. The Revolution did not bring real equality to the workers and
artisans, who were the backbone of the revolutionary movement. These workers
and artisans wanted economic equality. France soon became one of the first
countries where the ideas of
In what ways do you think Napoleon’s conquests
social equality and socialism
would have helped in the emergence of
gave rise to a new kind of
nationalism in those countries?
political movement.

Women and French Revolution
From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events that
made many important changes in French society. These women hoped that their
participation would force the revolutionary government to take some steps to
improve women’s lives. Most women of the Third Estate had to work for a living.
They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at
the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of rich people.
Most women did not get education or job training. Only the daughters of nobles or
wealthier members of the Third Estate could study at a convent. After that, their
families arranged a marriage for them. Working women also had to take care of
their families, that is, cook, and fetch water, queue up for bread and look after the
children. Their wages were lower than those of men.
Women started their own political clubs and newspapers to discuss and voice
their interests. Around sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities.
The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of
them. One of their main demands was that women should get the same political
rights as men. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 made them
passive citizens. They demanded for the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly
and to hold political positions.
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An Outline of the French Revolution
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette become King
and Queen of France

1774

Louis XVI helps the American colonies in
war against Britain. Increased taxes, tithes
and tailes

1781

Meeting of Estates General
Proposal for new taxes
Third estate walks out

1789

Formation of National Assembly.
National Assembly writes a draft of the
Constitution

1789 June

Constitution accepted by Louis XVI

1789 August

France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy
Declaration of Rights of
Man and Citizens

1791

Louis XVI starts secret alliances with
Prussia National assembly declared war
against Prussia and Austria

1792

Jacobin club and Robespierre revolt against the
monarchy. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
sentenced to death. Reign of Terror under
Robespierre. Robespierre convicted and
guillotined. Napoleon Bonaparte declares himself
the Emperor of French Republic.

1793

Napoleon defeated
Dynasties come back to power

1815

Revolution against ruling dynasties

1830-1870

France becomes a Republic

1871

In the early years, the
revolutionary government
introduced laws that
helped to improve the
lives of women. With the
creation of state schools,
schooling was made
compulsory for all girls.
Their fathers could no
longer force them to get
married against their will.
Marriage was made into a
contract. People could
freely get married and
register the marriage
under civil law. Divorce
was also made legal, and
both women and men
could apply for a divorce.
Women could now train
for jobs, could become
artists or run small
businesses.
Women’s struggle for
equal political rights,
however, continued.
During the Reign of
Terror,
the
new
government gave orders
to close the women’s
clubs and banned their
political activities. Many
prominent women were

arrested and some of them were executed. Women’s movements for voting rights
and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years in many countries of
the world. The fight for the right to vote continued through an international suffrage
movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The example of
the political activities of French women during the revolutionary years inspired
many women around the world. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the
right to vote.
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Fig. 13.4: Parisian women on the way to Versailles.
This print is on the many political representations of the events of 5th October 1789 when
women marched and brought the king back with them to Paris.

Fig. 13.5:
Painting “Club
of patriotic
woman in
church” 1793.
Notice the
French flag on
the side.

Key words

174

1. Glorious Revolution

2. Divine right

3. Aristocracy

4. Monarchy

5. Directory

6. Fraternity

Social Studies

Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 17th & 18th Centuries

Improve your learning
1. Identify the name of the country in the context of following statement: (UK, USA and
France) (AS1)
revolution where parliament system was established
country where king continues to play some role even after revolution
country that had to war against another in order to establish its democracy
The Bill of rights was adopted
Overthrow of the monarchy was led by the peasants
The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted
2. What were the main ideas of social thinkers, which were significant to the
establishment of new forms of governments? How did they gain popularity? (AS1)
3. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in
France.(AS1)
4. Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were
forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed
with the outcome of the revolution? (AS1)
5. After completing the chapter on Fundamental Rights, draw up a list of the democratic
rights that we enjoy today whose origins could be traced back to the French
Revolution.(AS4)
6. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with
contradictions? Explain. (AS2)
7. What made the American colonists to raise the slogan ‘No Taxation without
Representation’? (AS1)
8. What do understand by middle class? How did it emerge in Europe? (AS1)
9. Locate England, France, Prussia, Spain, and Austria on the Map of Europe. (AS5)
10. How do you understand women’s role in French Revolution? (AS6)
11. Read the para under the title ‘The Reign of Terror’ of page 168 and comment on it.
(AS2)

Project
Learn something more about the different personalities who played an important
role in American and French revolution. Which of them impresses you the most
and why? Write a paragraph on him/ her.

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CHAPTER

14

Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions
19th Centuary

Rise of Nationalism in European States
In the previous chapter, we read about democratic revolutions. Most of these
revolutions were also nationalist in character. Europe was divided into small
kingdoms and large empires at that time. The large empires had several nations
within them. The people of these kingdoms did not play any role in the administration
and felt oppressed by the kings and nobles. So they fought for a democratic
government and independent states for its people who shared a common language,
history, culture and economic life. They achieved this through democratic and
nationalist movements. As a result of these movements, large empires of Europe
were slowly replaced by modern nation-states.

Map 1: Europe after the Congress of Vianna - 1815.
176

Social Studies

Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 19th Centuary

In a modern state, a central power has complete control over a clearly defined
area. A nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its
rulers, had a sense of common identity and shared history. This was very different
from the earlier kingdoms ruled by kings and their nobles. The older kingdoms
sought to build loyalty and obedience to the king or the feudal lord. In contrast, in
Imagine yourself in Hyderabad, state a nation state, the people felt that they had
a common identity and purpose and the
of the Nizams. Do you think all the
affairs of the state were to be conducted
people of the state shared a common
according to the will of the people. The
feeling? Do you think they had a say
feeling of nationalism in each nation
in the running of the government? developed through struggles and actions of
Was the Nizam state a nation state?
leaders and the common people.
The French Revolution gave the term ‘nation’ its modern meaning. A nation is
not only the territory that the people live in but the people themselves. France was
not merely the territories known as France but the ‘French people’. The idea of
sovereignty also came from the revolution. Sovereignty means that there should be
no law or authority above the laws of a nation. If a nation is sovereign, the people of
the nation should be the source of all power and authority. The rulers cannot be
In what ways do you think could the above the people in a sovereign nation.
French revolutionaries help the other In such a republic, the government gets
its power from the people and is
peoples of Europe to become nations?
answerable to the people. The
You read about the French Revolution in
revolutionaries further declared that it
the last chapter. You have also read about
was the mission and the destiny of the
the Telangana armed movement against the
French nation to liberate the peoples
Nizam in class VIII. Do you think the anti- of Europe from despotism, in other
Nizam movement was a nationalist words to help other peoples of Europe
movement like the French Revolution? to become nations. In the following
Compare the similarities and differences section, we will find out more about the
between the two movements.
conditions in these kingdoms.

Kingdoms of Europe
If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-century Europe, you will find that
there were no ‘nation-states’ or countries as we know them today. What we know
today as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and
cantons which were ruled by independent rulers. Eastern and Central Europe were
under autocratic monarchies and diverse people lived in these territories. Because
of their different cultures, they did not feel a sense of collective identity or a
common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to
different ethnic groups. For example, the Habsburg Empire that ruled over AustriaHungary, had a combination of many different regions and peoples. It included the
Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland - and Bohemia, where the
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aristocracy was mostly German-speaking. It also included the Italian-speaking
provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar
while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke
Polish. Besides these three dominant groups – German, Italian and Magyar speakers,
a large number of peasant-nations lived within the empire – Bohemians and Slovaks
to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumanians to the east
in Transylvania. People did not feel a sense of political unity because of such
differences. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common
loyalty to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
Socially and politically, aristocracy or rich landlord class was the dominant
class in the European continent. The members of this class were united by a common
way of life. They owned town-houses and estates in the countryside. They spoke
French for diplomacy and in high society. Aristocratic families were often
connected to each other by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was very
small in population. The majority of the population
Serfs: People who were bound to serve
was that of peasants. In Western Europe, most of
in the lands of a particular lord and could
the farming was done by tenants and small owners, not go elsewhere without his permission
while in Eastern and Central Europe, vast estates
of landlords were cultivated by
serfs.
Napoleon invades Italy;
1797
Industrial production and
Napoleonic wars begin.
trade was slowly growing in
Fall of Napoleon;
Western Europe and parts of
1814 - 15
the Vienna Peace Settlement.
Central Europe. This led to the
growth of towns. A new
Greek struggle for independence
1821
begins.
commercial class emerged whose
existence depended on production
Revolutions in Europe; artisans,
for the market. Industrialisation
industrial workers and peasants
had already started in England in
revolt against economic hardships;
1848
middle classes demand constitution
the second half of the eighteenth
and representative governments;
century. But in France and parts
Italians,
Germans, Magyars, Poles,
of the German states, it started
only during the nineteenth
Unification of Italy.
1859 - 70
century. New social groups came
into existence: working-class,
middle classes, industrialists,
Unification of Germany.
1866 - 71
businessmen, and various kinds of
professionals like lawyers and
Slav nationalism gathers force in the
1905
doctors. In Central and Eastern
Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
Europe, these groups were
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smaller in number till late nineteenth century. The educated, liberal middle classes
wanted national unity. They wanted to abolish aristocratic privileges in society.

French Revolutionary Wars in Europe
The French sought to bring democracy and nationalism among the other people
of Europe. When the news of the events in French Revolution reached the different
cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began
setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the
French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy
in the 1790s. With the start of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to
take the idea of nationalism to other countries. You may remember that Napoleon
led these armies and eventually declared himself an Emperor. Within the wide areas
of territory that came under his control, Napoleon started many reforms that he
had already introduced in France.
Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France by becoming a monarch,
but in the administrative field, he had included revolutionary principles in order to
make the whole system more rational and efficient. The Law Code of 1804 – usually
known as the Napoleonic Code – removed all privileges based on birth. It established
equality for everyone before the law and secured the right to property. This Code
‘The most important question of
today’s meeting: How long will
thinking be allowed to us?’

1.Silence is the first
commandment of this
learned society.
2.To avoid the eventuality
whereby a member of this
club may succumb to the
temptation of speech,
muzzles will be distributed
to members upon entering.’

Fig. 14.1: The Club of Thinkers, anonymous caricature dating to 1820.
The plaque on the left bears the inscription: ‘The most important question of today’s
meeting: How long will thinking be allowed to us?’
The board on the right lists the rules of the Club which include the following:
1. Silence is the first commandment of this learned society.
2. To avoid the eventuality whereby a member of this club may succumb to the
temptation of speech, muzzles will be distributed to members upon entering.

What is the caricaturist trying to depict?
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was also exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic,
Switzerland, Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions. He
also banned the feudal system and freed the peasants from serfdom and manorial
dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions on craft production were removed.
Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers
and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale
producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws, standardised
weights and measures, and a common national currency would encourage the
movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French
rule were mixed. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well
as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies
were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. But
Why do you think were the French
the initial enthusiasm soon turned to
armies welcomed by the people of
hostility, as it became clear that the new
other countries initially?
administration did not come with political
freedom. In spite of all the administrative
In what ways do you think Napoleons
changes, there was increased taxation,
conquests would have helped in the
censorship, and forced conscription into
emergence of nationalism in those
the French armies in order to conquer the
countries?
rest of Europe.

Liberal Nationalism
In early-nineteenth-century Europe, ideas of national unity were connected to
the ideology of liberalism. Liberalism was a new ideology that was emerging in
many modern nation states like Britain. The term ‘liberalism’ comes from the Latin
root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes, liberalism meant that all the
people should have equal freedom before law. Politically, it meant that the
government should work by people’s consent. People’s consent was to be expressed
through their elected representatives. Since the French Revolution, liberalism
focused on ending autocracy and privileges of the Church. It emphasized on a
constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century
liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property. They opposed radical
measures of the French Revolution like confiscation of private property or laws to
ensure equal distribution of property, etc.
During the Telangana movement under
Thus the liberals on the one hand
the Nizam rule, the peasants of
supported political democracy and at the
Telangana fought for confiscating the
same time wanted to protect private
lands of the doras and distributing them
property of landlords and businessmen.
among the poor landless farmers. Do
Yet, freedom, democracy and equality
you think the liberals would have
before the law did not ensure universal
approved of this? Give reasons.
right to vote for all the people. You will
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recall that during the revolution in France, the right to vote and get elected was
given only to property-owning men. Men without property and all the women were
not given any political rights. Only for a brief period under the Jacobins, all adult
males enjoyed suffrage. However, under Napoleon, the right to vote was limited
again. It even reduced women to the status of a minor, for whom fathers and husbands
were the authority. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century, women
and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political
rights.
In the economic sphere, liberalism demanded protection of private property
and freedom of markets. They also felt that there should be no government
restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. In the nineteenth century, this
was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.
The German speaking region, for example, was divided into thirty nine
principalities. A merchant travelling to sell his goods would have had to pass through
customs barriers in each of them. At each barrier, he would have to pay a customs
duty of about 5 per cent. Duties were often levied according to the weight or
measurement of the goods. As each region had its own system of weights and
measures, this involved time-consuming calculation. Thus, such political divisions
within what was seen as one nation were both very expensive and time consuming
for the middle classes.
These conditions were obstacles to economic exchange and growth for the
new commercial classes. They wanted a unified economic territory that allowed
the smooth movement of goods, people and capital. In 1834, a customs union or
zollverein was formed by Prussia
In what ways do you think the old kingdoms
and joined by most of the German
prevented the growth of trade and industry?
states. The union abolished tariff
Why do you think liberal democracy was barriers and reduced the number
reluctant to give right to vote to women and of currencies from more than
thirty to two. Soon, a network of
property less men?
In what ways would liberal democracy have railways was created. It made the
helped to develop trade and industry in those movement of good and people
easy and encouraged national
countries?
unification of Germany. This wave
Do you think our country has a liberal of economic nationalism made
democratic political system? Give your reasons. the nationalist sentiments strong.

A New Conservatism after 1815
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments followed
conservatism. Conservatives believed that the traditional institutions of society
like the monarchy, the Church, privileges of the rich landlords, property and the
family – should be maintained. Most conservatives, however, did not propose to
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go back to the society of pre-revolutionary days. They realized that limited
modernisation could, in fact, strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy.
Monarchy used modernization as a tool to
Hold a debate in the class between those
increase their control over the state. A
who agree with conservatism and those
modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a
who agree with liberal democracy on
dynamic economy, the abolition of
what is best for the welfare and
feudalism and serfdom could strengthen
development of people in Europe or in
the autocratic monarchies of Europe and
India.
also the rich landlords.
In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia
and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to design a
settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke
Metternich. The delegates made the Treaty of Vienna of 1815. The aim of the
treaty was to undo most of the changes that had taken place in Europe during the
Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French
Revolution, was restored to power. France lost the territories it had conquered
under Napoleon. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to
prevent French expansion in future. The main intention was to bring back the
monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and to create a new conservative
society in Europe.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate
criticism and disagreements from the people. They tried to stop all the activities
that questioned the autocratic governments. There was censorship to control what
was said and written in newspapers, books, plays
and songs. People were not allowed to write about
the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with
the French Revolution. However, the memory of
the French Revolution still continued to inspire
liberals. Liberal-nationalists criticised the new
conservative government and protested for
freedom of the press.
Why do you think does conservatism
need to curb freedom to express one’s
opinion and criticise?

The Revolutionaries
During the years following 1815, many
liberal-nationalists went into hiding due to the fear
of repression. Secret societies came up in many
European states to train revolutionaries and spread
their ideas. The revolutionary at this time were
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Fig. 14.2: Giuseppe Mazzini and the
founding of Young Italy in Berne 1833.
Print by Giacomo Mantegazza.

Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 19th Centuary

committed to oppose monarchical forms of government that had been established
after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom. Most of these
revolutionaries also felt that the creation of nation-states was a necessary part of
this struggle for freedom.
One such person was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini. Born in Genoa
in 1807, he became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. As a young
man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in
Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded
young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of
mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
It had to come together into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of
nations. This unification could only be the basis of Italian liberty. Following his
model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics
frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous
enemy of our social order’.

Romanticism and Feeling
of Nationalism

Fig. 14.3: The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix, 1824.
The French painter Delacroix was one of the most important
French Romantic painters. This huge painting (4.19m x
3.54m) depicts an incident in which 20,000 Greeks were
said to have been killed by Turks on the island of Chios. By
dramatising the incident, focusing on the suffering of women
and children, and using vivid colours, Delacroix sought to
appeal to the emotions of the spectators, and create
sympathy for the Greeks.

The spirit of nationalism did
not come only through wars and
expansion of territories. Culture
also played an important role in
creating the idea of the nation:
art and poetry, stories and music
helped express and shape the
nationalist feelings.
Romanticism was a cultural
movement which helped to
develop nationalist sentiment in
Europe. Romantic artists and
poets generally criticised the
glorification of reason and
science. They focused more on
emotions, intuition and mystical
feelings.
They also emphasised on the
role of vernacular language and
local folklore (folk stories) to

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recover an ancient national spirit,
and spread the modern nationalist
message to large audiences who
were mostly illiterate.

You read in class VIII about how Indian
nationalists also sought to revive and give
importance to folk and classical arts in India.
Why do you think they thought this as important?

The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848
As conservative regimes tried to strengthen their power, liberalism and
nationalism became increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of
Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire,
Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging
to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, schoolteachers,
clerks and members of the commercial middle classes. The first upheaval took
place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power
during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its
head.
An event that aroused nationalist feelings among the educated elite across
Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman
Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in
Europe started a struggle for independence among the Greeks. This struggle began
in 1821. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an
independent nation.
The Congress of Vienna had placed Louis XVIII on the throne of France. Louis
was not an autocratic ruler like his brother, Louis XVI. According to the Charter of
1814, he ruled with the consent of a parliament. The people of France were satisfied
during the rule of Louis XVIII, but in 1824, a third brother came to the throne,
Charles X (1820-1830). He had been an active enemy of the Revolution and now
Fig. 14.4: A Painting
on Belgium
Revolution titled
“Wappers-Episodes
from September Days
1830 on the Place
del’Hôtel de Ville in
Brussels”. Compare
few paintings in this
book on events of
revolution with regard
to elemants like flag,
men and women,
expressions of people,
animals etc.,
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he tried to restore the special privileges given to the nobles and the clergy. When
the Chamber of Deputies objected to this, he set aside the Charter of 1814 and
attempted to rule as he wanted. This started an open revolt in which Charles was
forced to step down from the throne and Louis Philippe, a distant cousin, became
king (1830-1848).
The revolt against Charles X in 1830 led to a series of revolts. Holland and
Belgium, as you remember, had been united by the Congress of Vienna. This union
was an unwise decision made by the men at Vienna. The two countries were different
in nationality, language, and religion. Moreover, the Dutch people had more power
in the government than the Belgians had. In 1830, the Belgians revolted and set up
an independent nation. The great powers were not happy with this development, but
they could not do anything about it. There was a revolution going on in France.
Austria was also far away. At last, the independence of the Belgians was accepted.
Belgium set up a constitutional monarchy similar to that of France under Louis
Philippe.
The revolt spread to Poland, most of which had been given to Russia by the
Congress of Vienna. But the Polish situation was different from that of Belgium.
Their conflict involved Russia, one of the great powers. Therefore, the Poles
received no help from their neighbours, and though they fought hard, they were
defeated. As a result, the Tsar made Poland a part of Russia. Hundreds of Poles
were put to death and everything possible was done to wipe out the national spirit
among them.

Hunger, Hardship and the Popular Revolts
The 1830s were years of great economic difficulties in Europe. The population
increased enormously all over Europe in the first half of the nineteenth century. In
most countries, the number of people seeking jobs was much higher than available
employment opportunities. People
from rural areas migrated to the
cities to live in overcrowded slums.
Small producers in towns had to face
stiff competition because cheap
machine-made goods were being
imported from England, where
industrialisation was more advanced
than the remaining continent. This
was especially true for textile
production, which happened mainly
in homes or small workshops and had
very few machines. In some regions
of Europe where the aristocracy was
Fig. 14.5: The revolting French people in Paris.
still powerful, peasants struggled
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under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year
of bad harvest led to pauperism in towns and country.

Revolutions of 1848
The year 1848 was one such year. Food shortages and widespread
unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. Barricades or
barriers were erected to stop movement of government troops and Louis Philippe
was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage
to all adult males above 21, and
guaranteed the right to work. National
workshops were set up to provide
employment.
On one hand, the revolts of the
poor, unemployed and starving peasants
and workers in many European countries
in the year 1848. On the other hand, a
revolution led by the educated middle
classes was under way. The monarch
abdicated after the events of February
1848 in France. A republic based on
universal male suffrage was also
Fig. 14.6: Peasants’ uprising, 1848.
formed.
In Paris, where the revolutionary spirit was especially strong, street fighting
continued. Working men demanded jobs, and for some time, a provisional or
temporary government attempted to give them work. The leader in this experiment
was Louis Blanc, a Socialist. The government troops finally defeated the insurgents
and imposed severe punishments.
In other parts of Europe, where independent nation-states did not yet exist –
such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of
the liberal middle classes combined their demands for democratic constitution
with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to
push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles –
a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association. In the German
regions, a large number of political associations whose members were middleclass professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the
city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18
May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take
their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They
drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a
parliament. When the deputies offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of
Prussia, on these conditions, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose
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Explain why Charles X and Louis Philippe
fled from France.
In what ways were the liberals different
from the conservative monarchists and
how were they different from the radical
poor?
Why do you think were they defeated by
the conservatives?

the elected assembly. While the
opposition of the aristocracy and
military became stronger, the social
basis of parliament eroded. The
parliament was dominated by the
middle classes who resisted the
demands of workers and artisans and
consequently lost their support. At the
end, troops were called in and the
assembly was forced to disband.

Women and the Revolutions of 1848
A large number of women had participated actively in the liberal movement
over the years. The issue of extending political rights to women was very
.controversial. Women had formed their own political associations, founded
newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this,
they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. In the
Frankfurt Parliament, convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted
only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848,
they could not bring the old order back. Monarchs started to realise that the cycles
of revolution and repression could only end by giving recognition to the liberalnationalist revolutionaries. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic
monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had
already taken place in Western Europe before
Why do you think did the
1815. Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were
conservatives not want rapid
abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and
change but agreed to introduce
in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted more
changes slowly?
autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
After 1848, nationalism in Europe was not
anymore associated with democracy and revolution.
Conservative governments used the nationalist
sentiments to promote their power and achieve
political domination over Europe.

Caricature of Otto von Bismarck in
the German reichstag (Parliament),
from Figaro, Vienna, 5 March 1870.

Describe the caricature. How does it
represent the relationship between Bismarck
and the elected deputies of parliament? What
interpretation of democratic processes is the
artist trying to convey?
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Prussia before 1866
Conquered by Prussia in Austro-Prussia War, 1866
Austrian ternitories excluded from German Confederation 1867
Joined with Prussia to form German Confederation,1867
South Geman states joining with Prussia to form German Empire, 1871
Won by Prussia in Franco-Prussia War, 1871

Map 2: Unification of Germany (1866-1871)

It is for this reason that Germany and Italy unified as nation-states. As you have
seen, nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans. In 1848,
they tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nationstate governed by an elected parliament. However, monarchy and military together
suppressed this initiative of nation-building. Even the large landowners called
junkers of Prussia supported the monarchy in this.
From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national
unification. Its Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process
with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars were fought over
seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France. Prussia was victorious and
Fig. 14.7: The proclamation of
the German empire in the Hall of
Mirrors at Versailles.
At the centre stands the Kaiser and
the chief commander of the
Prussian army, General von Roon.
Near them is Bismarck. This
monumental work Anton von
Werner (2.7m x 2.7m) was
completed and presented by the
artist to Bismarck on the latter’s
70th birthday in 1885.
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completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William
I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
The nation-building process in Germany had shown the dominance of Prussian
state power. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency,
banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices
often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Unification of Italy
Like Germany, Italy also had a long history of being politically broken down
into small parts. Italians were scattered over many dynastic states as well as the
multi-national Habsburg Empire. During the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was
divided into seven states of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an
Italian princely house.
The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and
the southern regions were dominated by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the
Italian language did not have one common form and still had many regional and
local variations.
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to put together a programme
for uniting Italy into an Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called
Young Italy for achieving this goal. But, the revolution in 1831 and 1848 had
failed. This meant that now Sardinia-Piedmont, under its ruler King Victor
Emmanuel II, had to unify the Italian
states through war. The ruling elites
of this region felt that if Italy was
united, they would have more
political dominance and economic
development.
Prime Minister Cavour, who led
the movement to unify the regions
of Italy, was neither a revolutionary
nor a democrat. Like many other
wealthy and educated members of
the Italian elite, he spoke French
much better than he did Italian. He
made a tactful diplomatic alliance
with France that he had designed.
Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in
defeating the Austrian forces in
1859. Apart from regular troops, a
large number of armed volunteers,
under the leadership of Guiseppe

Map 3: Italitan States before Unification 1858.

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Garibaldi, joined the battle. In 1860, they entered South Italy and the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies. They drove out the Spanish rulers with the help and support of the
local peasants. In 1871, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of united
Italy. However, much of the Italian population, mostly illiterate, remained blissfully
unaware of the liberal nationalist ideology. The
Do you think Italy became a true
peasant masses that had supported Garibaldi in
nation state with its unification
southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and
under King Emmanuel II? Give
believed that ‘La Talia’ was Victor Emmanuel’s
your reasons.
wife!

Key words
1. Despotism
4. Bureaucracy

2. Nationalism
5. Romanticism

3. Liberalism
6. New Middle Class

Improve your leaning
1. Choose the correct options. (AS1)
• Democratic and nationalist movements assumed that a nation has a
________________ (shared history; shared culture; shared economy; all the
above; none of the above)
• Jacobin clubs were established in different countries by ________________
(peasants; royalty; middle class; army)
• During the mid 18th century, the land was owned by ___________ and cultivated
by ____________ (middleclass, army, aristocrats, tenants)
2. After reading about mid-eighteenth century Europe, what similarities or differences
existed among people in the context of: language, ethnicity, trade practices. (AS1)
3. Do you agree with the statement: “With the emergence of nation states, the
dominance of Aristocracy declined and middle class increased”. Give reasons.(AS2)
4. Write an imaginary dialogue between Mazzini and any of the Indian nationalist you
have studied? (AS6)
5. Mark sentences that describe conservatives and liberals. Try to identify examples
in our contemporary context. (AS1)
6. Draw a table to show the differences and similarities in the nation building process
of France, Germany and Italy. (AS1)
7. Explain the meaning of 1848 revolution of liberals. What were the political, social
and economic ideas supported by the liberals? (AS1)
8. Briefly trace the process of Germany unification. (AS1)
9. Locate some changes on the map of Europe drawn up by the Vienna Congress. (AS5)
10. Read the last para of page 185 and comment on it. (AS2)

Project
Compare the map of Europe of Mid 18th Century (1815) with that of the present
map of Europe and note down the changes you find, in a note book.
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Democratic & Nationalist Revolutions 19th Centuary

Industrialisation and Social Change

CHAPTER

15

The economy and industries in Britain changed completely between the 1780s
and the 1850s. This phase is known as the ‘first Industrial Revolution’. The term
‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars – Georges Michelet in France
and Friedrich Engels in Germany. It was used for the first time in English by the
philosopher and economist, Arnold Toynbee (1852-83), to describe the changes in
British industrial development between 1760 and 1820. This revolution had
widespread effects in Britain. Later, similar revolutions also happened in European
countries and the USA. These changes were going to have a major impact on the
society and economy of these countries as well as the rest of the world. However,
industrialisation in different countries was different from each other, depending
upon the country’s historical, social and geographical features. This chapter outlines
some important changes in the cotton and iron industries in Britain.
Fig. 15.1: Industries in London
at the time of Industrial Revolution.

When
industrial
development started in Britain,
new
machinery
and
technologies was invented.
Because of the new machinery
and technology, it was now
possible to produce goods on a
large scale as compared to
handicraft and handloom
industries where production
was small scale British
industries had now started using
steams, a new source of power
for their production. Use of
steam power made the modes of
transportation, like ships and
railways, faster. Many of the
inventors and businessmen who
made these inventions were
neither personally wealthy nor
educated in basic sciences like
physics or chemistry.
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191

Industrialisation brought great brought prosperity for many people. But, initially,
it was linked with poor living and working conditions of millions of people, including
What were the difficulties faced women and children. After many
by women and children during protests, the government was forced to
make laws for improving the conditions
industrial revolution?
of work.

Why Britain?
Britain was the first country to
experience modern industrialisation
because it had been politically stable since
the seventeenth century. England, Wales and
Scotland were unified under a monarchy.
Many favourable conditions or prerequisites were present in England that
helped in setting up and flourishing of
industries. The other countries experienced
this change later.
Britain was blessed with a modest
climate, which suited the cotton industry.
There was no scarcity of water power. There
was sufficient raw material available in
England. Coal and iron were available in
abundance and side by side. The coal fields
were larger and closer to important harbours
than in any other European countries. So, it
was convenient to transport the raw material
by water.
Map 1: Britain(England): The Iron Industry
“On the basis of iron, coal, and textiles”
Fisher compliments, ‘Britain built up a type of civilisation which has been copied
all round the world”.
There was a lot of wealth in England so it was not difficult to raise capital for
industries. Britain was known for its commercial relationships with other countries
from the beginning of the seventeenth century, and it earned huge profits through
its business with other countries.
But the availability of wealth is of no use, unless it is invested in the right way.
The Bank of England played an important role in speeding up the use of capital.
The rise of London money market, joint-stock banks, and Joint Stock Corporation
made the finance simple and easy.
Workers from different sources were available in large numbers in England.
They were willing to work in the newly set up factories or industries for production
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on a large scale. British population was also growing. The old and unprofitable
system of agriculture was replaced by improved methods of cultivation, i.e., by
scientific rotation of crops. This increased the food supply, and consequently, the
population. A large number of people immigrated to England from European Labour
in the eighteenth century. The old peasant farming system had stopped due to the
revolutionary movements. People who earlier worked as peasants now worked in
industries.
Britain was ready for trade through sea by eighteenth century. It had a large
number of ports. Inland transport was improved and modernised by building a network
of roads and canals. Many remarkable Scottish and English men succeeded in
inventing machines that were useful for production. This contribution helped in
transforming the economic life of
the country. All the above mentioned
Discuss the developments in Britain
reasons helped England to become a
and in other parts of the world in 18th
pioneer with its industrial
century that encouraged British
production. England was now looked
Industrialisation.
upon as the ‘Workshop of the world’.

Coal and Iron
England was fortunate that coal and iron ore, the staple materials required for
mechanisation, were available in large quantity. Even other minerals like lead, copper
and tin that were used in the industries were easily available. However, until the
eighteenth century, usable iron was not easily available. Iron is extracted as pure
liquid metal from the ore by a process called smelting. For centuries, charcoal
(from burnt timber) was used for the smelting process. This had several problems:
it was difficult to transport charcoal across long distances because it was too fragile.
Secondly, its impurities
produced poor-quality iron.
Thirdly, charcoal was available
in short supply because forests
had been destroyed for timber
and it could not generate high
temperatures.
The solution to this problem
was found by a family of ironmasters, the Darbys of
Shropshire. Within half a
century, three generations of
this family – grandfather, father
and son, all called Abraham
Fig. 15.2: The Cast Iron Bridge near Coalbrookdale,
Darby – brought a revolution in
designed by the third Darby.

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the metallurgical industry. In 1709, the first Abraham Darby (1677-1717) invented
a blast furnace that would use coke which could generate high temperatures. Coke
was derived from coal by removing the sulphur and impurities. This invention meant
that furnaces no longer had to depend on charcoal. The melted iron that came from
these furnaces permitted finer and larger castings than before.
The process was further refined by more inventions. The second Darby (171168) developed wrought-iron (which was less brittle) from pig-iron. Henry Cort
(1740-1823) designed the puddling furnace (in which impurities would be removed
from molten iron) and the rolling mill, which used steam power to roll purified
iron into bars. It now became possible to produce a large range of iron products.
Since iron was durable, it was a better material than wood for everyday items and
for machinery. Unlike wood, which could burn or splinter, the physical and chemical
properties of iron could be controlled.
Britain was lucky that it had excellent coking coal and high-grade iron ore
available in the same basins or even the same seams. These basins were also close
to ports. There were five coastal coalfields which could deliver their products
almost straight into ships. As a result, ship building and the shipping trade increased.
The British iron industry increased
its output four times between 1800 and
1830, and its product was the cheapest
in Europe. In 1820, a tonne of pig iron
needed 8 tonnes of coal, but by 1850, it
could be produced by using only 2
tonnes. By 1848, Britain was smelting
more iron than the rest of the world put
together.

Why is high quality steel and iron
necessary for industrialisation? Discuss
in the class.
Why do you think the mining of iron ore
and coal received equal importance?
Why do you think the early industrial
centres were situated near the iron and
coal mines?

Cotton Spinning and Weaving
The British had always woven cloth out of wool and flax (to make linen). Since
the seventeenth century, the country had been importing bales of cotton cloth from
India at a high cost. As East India Company’s political control in parts of India was
established, it began to import raw cotton along with cloth. This raw cotton could
be spun and woven into cloth in England itself.
Till the early eighteenth century, spinning had been so slow and laborious that
a single weaver worked on the yarn produced by 10 spinners (mostly women, hence
the word ‘spinster’). Therefore, while spinners were busy spinning all day, weavers
waited idly for the yarn. But with new technological inventions, the time gap was
reduced between spinning of raw cotton into yarn or thread, and weaving the yarn
Write two important inventions which into fabric. These industries were
heavily dependent on the work of
revolutionised the textile industry.
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women and children in factories. To
make it even more efficient, production
was gradually shifted from the homes of
spinners and weavers to factories.
From the 1780s, the cotton industry
symbolised British industrialisation in
many ways. This industry had two
features which were also seen in other
industries. Raw cotton was entirely
imported and a large part of the finished
cloth was exported to other countries.
Britain had its control over the sources
of raw cotton as well as the markets
where they sold cloth. This helped to
increase its control over the colonies.

Steam Power
Steam power was first used in mining
industries. As the demand for coal and
metals increased, people made more
Map 2: The cotton industries in Britain.
efforts to obtain them from deeper
mines. Flooding in mines was a serious problem and steam engines were used to
drain the water from the mines. But the technology was still not useful on a large
scale.
James Watt’s (1736-1819) invented a new steam engine. This invention
converted the steam engine from a mere pump into a ‘prime mover’. He made the
steam engine capable of providing energy to power machines in factories. With
the help of a wealthy manufacturer, Matthew Boulton
(1728- 1809), Watt created the
Soho Foundry in Birmingham
in 1775.At the foundry, James
Watt’s steam engines were
produced in growing numbers.
By the end of the eighteenth
century, Watt’s steam engine
was beginning to replace
hydraulic power. In 1840,
British steam engines were
generating more than 70 per
Fig. 15.3: James Watt’s Steam Engine.
cent of all European power.
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195

Transportation
Because of growing industrialization, there was increased need to transport
raw materials and manufactured products. For this, the roads were improved and
the digging of canals was done in England. Mc Adam devised the method of making
‘pakka’ or ‘macadamised’ roads.
Canals were initially built to transport coal to cities. This was because coal
was very heavy and required in large quantities. So, its transport by road was much
slower and more expensive than by boats on canals. The demand for coal as industrial
energy and for heating and lighting homes in cities was increasing. The first English
canal, the Worsley Canal (1761), was built by James Brindley (1716-72). It was
built to carry coal from the coal deposits at Worsley (near Manchester) to that
city. After the canal was completed, the price of coal fell by half. Thousands of
kilometres of canals were built by 1830 and were used to transport commodities
cheaply. They were mostly built by landowners to increase the value of their
properties.
The first steam locomotive, Stephenson’s Rocket, was made in 1814. Railways
was the new means of transportation that was available throughout the year. It was
both cheap and fast and it could carry passengers and goods. They combined two
inventions; the iron track replaced the wooden track in the 1760s, and the power of
the steam engine.
The invention of railways took the process of industrialisation to its second
stage. The first railway line connected the cities of Stockton and Darlington in
1825, a distance of 9 miles that was completed in two hours at the speed of up to 5
mph. The next railway line connected Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. Within
20 years, trains had started moving at the speed of 30 to 50 miles an hour.
In the 1830s, the use of canals revealed several problems. Too many large
ships made the movement on canals slow. Another problem was if there was frost,
flood or drought in the canal, the ships could not use it.

Who were the inventors?
It is interesting to read about the individuals who brought these changes during
industrialisation. Few of them were trained scientists. Education in basic sciences like
physics or chemistry was extremely limited until the late nineteenth century, even after
the technological inventions described above. Since these inventions did not require a
full knowledge of the laws of physics or chemistry on which they were based, advances
in science could be and were made by brilliant, intuitive thinkers and experimenters.
They were helped by the fact that England had certain features which other European
countries did not. Dozens of scientific journals and published papers of scientific societies
appeared in England between 1760 and 1800. There was a widespread thirst for knowledge
even in the smaller towns. This was met by the activities of the Society of Arts (founded
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in 1754), by travelling lecturers, or in ‘coffee houses’ that multiplied through the
eighteenth century.
Most inventions happened because of determination, interest, curiosity, even luck,
rather than the application of scientific knowledge. Some inventors in the cotton
industry, like John Kay and James Hargreaves, were familiar with the skills of weaving
and carpentry. Richard Arkwright, however, was a barber and wig-maker, Samuel
Crompton was not technically skilled and Edmund Cartwright studied literature, medicine
and agriculture, initially wished to become a clergyman and knew little of mechanics.
By contrast, in the area of steam engines, Thomas Savery, an army officer, Thomas
Newcomen, a blacksmith and locksmith, and James Watt, with a strong mechanical bent,
all had some knowledge relevant to their inventions. The road-builder, John Metcalf,
who personally surveyed surfaces for roads and planned them, was blind. The canal
builder James Brindley was almost illiterate, with such poor spelling that he could never
spell the word ‘navigation’, but he had tremendous powers of memory, imagination and
concentration.

Changed lives
In this period, it was possible for talented individuals to bring revolutionary
changes in science and technology. Similarly, there were many rich individuals
who took risks and invested money in industries in the hope of making profits and
‘multiplying’ their wealth. In most cases, this money – capital – did multiply. Wealth
increased dramatically, in the form of goods, incomes, services, knowledge and
productive efficiency.
At the same time, there was a massive negative human cost. Families were
breaking down, life in the cities was degrading and people had to work under horrible
working conditions in factories. In 1750, there were just 2 cities with a population
of over 50,000inin England. But, by 1850 there were 29 such cities with a population
(B)
(A)

Fig. 15.4: (A) Coalbrookdale, Carpenters’ Row, cottages built by the company for workers
in 1783; (B) The houses of the Darbys; painting by William Westwood, 1835.
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197

of over 50,000. But there was not enough arrangement for housing, sanitation or
clean water for the rapidly growing urban population. Newcomers were forced to
live in overcrowded slums in the central areas of towns near factories. The rich
people escaped this situation, by shifting their homes to the suburbs where the air
was cleaner and the water safe to drink.

The Workers
A survey in 1842 revealed that the average lifespan of workers was lower than
that of any other social group in cities: it was 15 years in Birmingham, 17 in
Manchester, 21 in Derby. In the new industrial cities, people died at a younger age
than in the villages. Half the children failed to survive beyond the age of five. The
increase in the population of cities was because of immigrants, rather than by an
increase in the number of children born to families who already lived there.
Deaths were primarily caused by epidemics of disease like cholera and typhoid
that spread from the pollution of water, or tuberculosis from the pollution of air.
More than 31,000 people died from an outbreak of cholera in 1832. Until late in
the nineteenth century, municipal authorities did not pay any attention to these
dangerous conditions of life. People did not have the medical knowledge to
understand and cure these diseases.

Women, Children and Industrialisation
The Industrial Revolution brought many important changes in the way children
and women worked. In the rural areas, children usually worked at home or in the
farm under the watchful eye of parents or relatives. They did jobs that changed
during the day or between seasons. Similarly, in villages, women were actively
involved in farm work; they looked after the livestock, gathered firewood and spun
yarn on spinning wheels in their homes.
But in the factories, they had to work for long hours without a break. They did
the same kind of work under strict discipline and sharp forms of punishment. The
women and children were forced to work to supplement men’s meagre wages. As
the use of machinery spread, fewer workers were needed. Industrialists now
preferred to employ women and children because they would easily agree to work
in poor working conditions and for lower wages than men.
Women and children were employed in large numbers in the cotton textile
industry in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Women were also the main workers in the
silk, lace-making and knitting industries, as well as (along with children) in the
metal industries of Birmingham. Machinery like the cotton spinning jenny was
designed to be used by child workers with their small fingers and bodies. Children
worked in textile factories because they were small enough to move between tightly
packed machinery. The long hours of work, including cleaning the machines on
Sundays, allowed them no fresh air or exercise. Children sometimes caught their
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hair in machines or crushed their
hands. Some even died when
they fell into machines as they
dropped off to sleep from
exhaustion.
Coal mines were also
dangerous places to work in.
Roofs caved in or there could be
an explosion, and injuries were
common. The owners of coal
mines used children to reach
deep coal faces where the path
was too narrow for adults.
Younger children worked as
‘trappers’ who opened and shut
Fig. 15.5 : Woman in gilt-button factory, Birmingham.
In the 1850s, two thirds of the workforce in the button
doors as the coal wagons
trade was women and children. Men received 25
travelled through mines, or
shillings a week, women 7 shillings and children one
carried heavy loads of coal on
shilling each, for the same hours of work.
their backs as ‘coal bearers.’
Factory managers considered child labour to be an important training for future
factory work. The British factory records reveals that about half of the factory
workers had started working when they were less than ten years old and 28 per
cent, when they were under 14. Though women got financial independence and
self-esteem from their jobs; but had to tolerate humiliating terms of work. They
lost the children at birth or in
Mention two important industrialisation
early childhood and had to live
effects on women and children’s life.
in squalid urban slums.

Industrialisation in Germany and France
While industrialisation began early in England in the 18th century, it was not
until 1850s and 1870s that industrial production became prominent in Germany
and France. As you may remember, Germany was not united till 1870 and France
was facing wars and revolutions. Unlike Britain, which had extensive colonies,
Germany and France did not have colonies and access to colonial resources. Thus
they had to make up for these disadvantages.
In both the countries, industrialisation increased with the introduction of
railways in 1830s. Railways increased trade, communication and economic growth.
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199

Discuss the effects of early industrialisation
By 1850, various German states had
on British town and villagers and compare
constructed half as many railways as
these with similar situation in India.
Britain and twice as many as France.
Prussia exploited its rich coalfields (Silesia and the Rhineland -the Ruhr) and
iron deposits (Bohemia) in order to create a flourishing steel industry. Alfred Krupp
had established a small iron foundry at Essen in 1810. By 1870, Krupp of Essen,
had been transformed into a giant company with its railway locomotive and
armaments production. They employed thousands of workers and made a fortune
for the Krupp family. The invention of the electric dynamo by Werner Siemens in
1866 laid the foundation of a new electrical industry in which Germany would lead
the world. The defeat of France in 1870 and the creation of a united Germany in
1871 stimulated industrialisation even further. The new politically united Germany
could now exploit the rich iron-fields of Lorraine taken from France.

Condition of child labourers
The horrible condition of child labourers
is stated in the evidence collected by a
committee of British Parliament in 1816.
The following information was collected
from a one-time master of apprentices
in a cotton mill. He was asked questions
by the committee on the condition of
child labourers in his factory.
‘At what age were they taken?’
‘Those that came from London were
from about eight or ten to fifteen.’
‘Up to what period were they
apprenticed?’
‘One –and-twenty.’
‘What were the hours of work?’
‘From five O’clock in the morning till eight
at night.’
‘Were fifteen hours in the day the
regular hours of work?’
‘Yes.’
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‘When the works were stopped for the
repair of the mill, or for any want of
cotton, did the children afterwards
make up for the loss of that time?’
‘Yes.’
‘Did the children sit or stand to work?’
‘Stand.’
‘The whole of their time?’
‘Yes.’
‘Were there any seats in the mill?’
‘None. I have found them frequently
upon the mill-floors, after the time
they should have been in bed.’
‘Were any children injured by the
machinery?’
‘Very frequently.’

Industrialisation and Social Change

German government encouraged industrialization in Germany by providing a large
Compare the industrialisation in market for its industries, building roads and
Germany and France. Identify railways and developing mines. The German army
required large quantities of arms and ammunitions.
similarities and differences.
So, many leading industrialists focused on the
Why do you think France lagged
armament industry. The government also controlled
behind in industrial development? working class movement and provided many social
What factors enabled Germany to benefits and insurance for the workers. This
outstrip England and France in enabled the factory owners to control their
industrialisation?
workers and pay less.
German industry also benefitted from the technical developments achieved by
Britain and USA. They borrowed the new technology which other countries had
developed over a long time. For this they needed heavy capital investment which
they received from large banks. Thus, German industries developed as large units
and were bigger than British industries in size and scope.
German industrialisation initially had competition with the Britain in many
key sectors like cotton textiles and machine building. However, soon Germany
developed iron and steel, chemical and electrical industries which were new
generation industries and overtook Britain in these areas. By the beginning of 20th
century, Germany had developed a powerful industrial base. It was challenging
Britain as Europe’s major industrial power. Britain was still producing more coal,
but Germany was producing more steel. What was worrying for Britain and France
was that a great proportion of this industrial production was used to build up
Germany’s military and naval power.
France, in contrast, was slow in industrialising. Even by the end of the 19th
century, France remained a rural country with a large majority of people cultivating
small plots of land. Manufacturers found it more profitable to give out work to
rural workers who worked at home rather than to set up factories in towns. Such
rural
domestic
The Krupp Family
production began to
decline after 1850 The Krupp family established what was going to become
resulting
in the world’s largest arms factory. This first factory
economic adversity specialised in field gun manufacture and, by 1887, it
for the people. supplied arms to forty six different countries.
Machines in towns During World War I, the Krupp factories made guns for
began to do most of the German artillery.
the work and only The Krupps supported Hitler in the German general
delicate hand work election of 1933. As Nazi Germany occupied
was given out to rural neighbouring countries, Alfred Krupp seized new land
workers. French to make more factories. Many of these factories used
industrialisation was slave-labour from the Nazi concentration camps.
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201

also a result of the spread of railway and road networks after 1860 which created a
wide market for its industrial goods.
France also did not develop Banks which could mobilise large amount of capital
and lend them to industrialists. As a result, most of French manufacturers depended
upon family resources. They remained small companies as a result. It also made
them slow in adopting new ideas and technologies.
Heavy industries based on iron and coal also developed very slowly in France as
it did not have good reserves of coal. France had to depend upon expensive imports
for coal. Thus, French industrialisation remained focused on consumer products
like textiles, which were basically small scale enterprises. This was in contrast to
the German and British Industrial situation where heavy industries predominated.

Key words
1. Industrialisation
4. Steam Power

2. Transformation
5. Hydraulic Power

3. Industrial Revolution

Improve your learning
Fill in the blanks with correct options:
1. Britain did not depended on different parts of the world for ______ and
___________ (labourers; raw material; capital; inventions) (AS1)
2. Two important types of transport during the Industrial revolution were _____ and
______ (road; air; water; rail) (AS1)
3. Write two sentences each on following aspects in the context of Industrial revolution:
a) Technology
b) financing and money
(AS1)
c) Agriculture revolution
d) transport systems
4. What do you think is special about inventions happening during the industrial
revolution? (AS1)
5. How were the lives of different classes of British women affected by the industrial
revolution? (AS1)
6. What were the relative advantages of canal and railway transportation? (AS1)
7. Locate the places where iron and textile industries are mainly concentrated in England
during industrial revolution. (AS5)
8. Prepare a table on invention during the time of Industrial Revolution. (AS3)
9. Read the para under the title ‘The Workers’ of page 191 and comment on it. (AS2)

Project
Mention the consequences of the industrial revolution in the economic field. Write a
report and present in your class.
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Social Protest Movements

CHAPTER

16

Industrialisation and the emergence of nation states changed the lives of people
in very basic ways. It changed the way people worked, their access to necessities of
life and dignity, their relationship with their own work and its products, their families
and neighbourhood. For many people, especially the poor peasants, crafts persons
and industrial workers, it brought an end to dignified and secure life. They were
now forced to work in factories with hundreds and thousands of other workers
under the control of unsympathetic foremen and managers. They did not have any
awareness about what they produced, when and how
they worked. The wages were very low and the work
was not permanent. This created a lot of
dissatisfaction and unhappiness among the people.
Things became especially difficult when the factory
owners cut down wages, reduced the number of
workers or increased workload on them.
In the early decades of industrialization, the new
political ideas of French Revolution (1789-94) were
also spreading simultaneously. People could take
mass actions like protest with the help of the
movements for ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’. These
movements helped in the creation of democratic
institutions like the French parliamentary assemblies
of the 1790s. They also reduced the difficulties of
war by controlling the prices of necessities like bread.
Industrialisation also deeply troubled artists and
intellectuals. Human values associated with
agricultural or craft production and community life
of villages were lost. The focus was on reason,
science and technology rather than feelings and
emotions. The impact of large scale industrialisation
and poverty of the working people left a deep mark
on the minds of the people. Some of them studied
economics and social history to understand the
Fig. 16.1: Lane in poorer
challenges of industrialisation. Others turned to
quarters of London. French
poetry and art for inspiration for alternative virtues.
artist Dore 1876.
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203

Industrialisation also gave birth to new social groups that wanted to play an
important role in the society. Now, the power and influence was in the hands of
industrial capitalists and large landowners. The working class movements were
becoming more organised. Workers realised their power when they united. They
now understood that if they came together, they could bring the entire economy to
a standstill. They were also inspired by the ideas
In what ways do you think ideas
of French Revolution and Socialism. Similarly,
of liberty, equality and fraternity
women, who were confined to homes till then,
would have helped to inspire
came out and demanded equal status and role in
protest movements?
society, economy, polity and culture. They often
joined other social movements like socialism
Do you think people have
and democratic nationalism to ask for their own
achieved these three ideals in the
rights.
21st century?
In this chapter, we will look at some of these
Do you see any social movements
developments and understand how they
which are still inspired by these
influenced the course of modern world,
ideas around you?
especially India.

Early Worker’s Movements in England
In England, political protests against the cruel working conditions in factories
were increasing. The working population was demanding for the right to vote. The
government tried to repress them. They made new laws that denied people the right
to protest.
England had been fighting a war with France for a long time – from 1792 to
1815. Trade between England and Europe was disrupted. Factories were forced to
shut down. Unemployment was growing and the prices of essential items of food,
like bread and meat, increased beyond the level of average wages. In 1795, the
Parliament passed two Combination Acts which made it illegal to ‘incite the people
by speech or writing to hatred or contempt of
the King, Constitution or Government’. It also
Why do you think the landowners
banned unauthorised public meetings of more
supported the Corn Laws and
than 50 persons. Even then, protest against ‘Old
workers would be against them?
Corruption’ continued. The term, ‘Old
In India too, such laws which
Corruption’, was used for the privileges that the
protected our farmers from
monarchy and Parliament had. Members of
competition from import of
Parliament – landowners, manufacturers and
cheap agricultural products are
professionals – were against giving the right to
being ended. Do you think such
vote to the working population. They supported
imports will benefit the poor
the Corn Laws, which prevented the import of
people in India?
cheaper food until prices in Britain had risen to
a certain level.
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The workers came together in towns and factories and protested in anger and
frustration. There were bread or food riots throughout the country from the 1790s
onwards. Bread was the staple item in the diet of the poor. Its price governed their
standard of living. People seized large stocks of bread and sold them at an affordable
and morally correct price rather than at the high prices charged by profit-hungry
traders. Such riots were particularly common in the worst year of the war, 1795,
but they continued until the 1840s.
Another process known as ‘enclosure’ caused problems for the people. From
the 1770s, hundreds of small farms had been merged into larger ones under powerful
landlords. The poor rural families who were affected by this had to start working in
industries. But, when machines were brought into the cotton industry, thousands of
handloom weavers were thrown out of work and into poverty. Their work was too
slow as compared with the machines.
From the 1790s, these weavers began to demand a legal minimum wage, which
was refused by Parliament. When they went on strike, they were dispersed by force.
Out of frustration, the cotton weavers
To what extent do you think breaking the
in Lancashire destroyed the power
machines helped the workers?
looms which they believed had
destroyed their livelihood. In
The government passed a law which gave
Yorkshire, croppers, who had
capital punishment to those who broke
traditionally sheared sheep by hand,
machines. Do you think this was justified?
destroyed shearing-frames. In the
When new machines are brought in a
riots of 1830, farm labourers found
factory, some workers are usually
that their jobs could be taken away by
rendered jobless. Why do you think this
the new threshing machines that
happens? Can there be ways of improving
separated the grain from the husk. The
technology
without
creating
rioters smashed these machines. Nine
unemployment for workers?
of them were hanged and 450 were
sent to Australia as convicts.

Luddism
The protest movement known as Luddism (1811-17) was led by the charismatic
General Ned Ludd. Luddism was not only an assault on machines. Its participants
demanded a minimum wage. They also wanted control over the labour of women
and children. They demanded for work for those who had lost their jobs because of
the coming of machinery. They also asked for the right to form trade unions so that
they could legally present these demands. The workers still did not have any powerful
trade union to fight for their rights. They fought by threatening to damage the
machines and stocks of the factory owners. In many cases, the factory owners
agreed to negotiate with the workers and offered better working conditions. Workers
and many middle class persons like shop keepers and master craftsmen thought
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that the machines were unnecessary.
They felt that the machines were
being introduced to take away their
livelihoods. Hence, there was much
social support to such protests. In
many places, the radical workers
worked spontaneously in the name of
General Ludd and in other places,
there were secret organisations
which acted in a planned and
coordinated manner.

Socialism
Luddism was now being
suppressed by the government and the
army. A new ideology was slowly
Fig. 16.2: An illustration from 1812 named Frame
developing which would give the
Breaking showing Luddists.
workers a new social goal. This was
the idea of Socialism. What is Socialism? Socialism calls for public ownership
rather than private control of property and natural resources. According to the
socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation
with one another. Further, everything that people produce is a social product, and
everyone who contributes to the production of a good has a right to share it.
Therefore, society, as a whole, should own or control property for the benefit of
all its members.
In this way, socialism is opposed to the basic idea of capitalism. Capitalism is
based on private ownership of the means of production. Capitalists themselves
determine what is to be produced and who is to be given a share of the produce.
Socialists complain that capitalism distributes wealth and power in an unfair and
exploitative manner. It gives all the money and power to a few individuals. The rich
then use their wealth and power to increase their dominance in society. Because
such people are rich, they may choose where and how to live. Their choices in turn
limit the options of the poor. As a result, terms such as individual freedom and
equality of opportunity may be meaningless for capitalists. But the working people
must do as the capitalists’ want in order to survive. As socialists see it, true freedom
and true equality means that society should control the resources that provide the
basis for prosperity in any society.
Socialists also believe that because the resources are distributed unequally,
there cannot really be genuine free competition. The rich and powerful people
manage to move the balance in their favour by hook or crook.
Some elements of socialist ideas can be seen in many thinkers down the ages,
like Plato or Thomas Moore. These ideas became powerful when they were
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combined with the ideas of French Revolution.
Babeuf and other radicals complained that the
Revolution had failed to fulfill the ideals of
liberty, equality, and fraternity. Babeuf argued
that in order to get complete equality, private
property and common enjoyment of the land and
its fruits should be abolished. He was executed
for conspiring to overthrow the government
because of these ideas. However, his ideas
inspired many social protest movements against
the factory system.
Another early socialist thinker was SaintSimon of France who advocated for public
control of property through central planning. He
imagined a society in which scientists,
industrialists, and engineers would anticipate
social needs and make plan to meet them. Such
Fig. 16.3: Poster from a magazine that
thinkers emerged in England too, the home of
mobilises workers
Industrial Revolution. Here a small industrialist
named Owen was disturbed by the conditions of the workers and the wealth of the
capitalists. He took an initiative for building cooperative villages, in which
everything would be owned in common and people would work in cooperation
with each other and share the products of their labour. However, these ideas could
not be implemented because of the massive growth of industrial production and so
they only remained idealistic or utopian.
Karl Marx and Fredric Engels came up with a new theory of socialism based
on their study of the working of industrial capitalist production. They argued that
capitalism is both a progressive as well as an exploitative system. It separates
capitalists and workers from their true humanity. It is progressive because it has
made possible the industrial transformation of the world, and this productive power
can fulfill everyone’s necessity. Yet it is exploitative because it forces the working
classes to lives of extreme hard work and difficulties. The fruit of this hard work
goes to the capitalists. Marx believed that industrial production will make it
impossible for people to live and work on a small scale; they will have to cooperate
with countless number of people to produce even their basic needs. Thus,
production has become an all-society affair rather than a matter of one family or a
small farm or one village. This has given human beings a lot of power in their
hands to improve their own lives, provided they are able to do it in collective
interest.
Marx and Engels argued that the workers, who produced in the factories, had
no property and were at the same time most important for the production to happen.
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Yet they are exploited so that the
capitalist system continues to make
profit. This will force the workers to
fight for better wages and for ending the
capitalist system itself. If the workers
take over all the factories and other
resources and run them for common
benefit, a new and equitable society
could be established. He argued that
Friedrich Engels
Karl Marx
workers should organise themselves
and throw out the capitalists just like the feudal lords and
kings in the French Revolution. Workers should take over the state government
and establish a worker’s state which should own all the factories and land. This
state should plan and organise the production in a way that it benefits all the members
of society.
The ideas of Marx and Engels made a great impact on radical thinkers and
activists at the end of 19th century and inspired major social movements in the
20th century. At the same time, many other radical thinkers disagreed with Marx
on many issues and they gave new theories like Anarchism.
Socialism came to India from very early days. Swami Vivekananda was himself
deeply influenced by the ideas of Socialism which were growing in Europe and
America when he visited those continents. As the nationalist movement grew in
strength, many nationalists were also influenced by socialism. Russian Communist
Revolution in 1917 was the source of great inspiration for Indian nationalists,
particularly as the revolutionary government declared that it will support all
nationalist causes. Many leaders like M N Roy, Bhagat Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru
etc. were enthusiastic socialists. As factory production developed in Indian cities
too, many leaders organised
In what way did Marx’s Socialism
trade unions among the workers.
disagree with Luddism?
They too were influenced by the
Why did Marx consider factory ideas of Marxism and went on to
production as superior and desirable?
found the Communist Party of
What was the main difference between India in the 1920s.
Marx and the earlier socialists?

Women’s Movement
During medieval and early modern times, women were dominated by men across
the world. They did not have access to property or civil rights like voting etc. They
were mostly restricted to domestic work like cooking, bringing up children, taking
care of the elderly at home and assisting men at work. This started to change with
industrialisation as women began to be employed in factories in large numbers. As
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women came out of their houses to work and earn, they developed a new identity
of themselves and their role in society. They began to assert the principle of equality
of all human beings, whether they were women or men.
When the French Revolutionaries were preparing the Declaration of Rights of
Men in 1791, many French women protested against this and drafted a separate
Declaration of the Rights of Women. It declared - “Women are born free and remain
equal to men in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility…
All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices
and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than
that of their virtues and talents”. Of course, this declaration was never passed by
the French Assembly. However, the goals of women’s movements in Europe and
America were that women should be treated as equals of men, that they should
have the right to participate in government through voting and holding public posts.
The movement for extending the right to vote to all sections of the population
became stronger from 1830 to 1870. In countries like England, women came out
in large numbers demanding the right to vote. They were called ‘women’s
suffragists’. They held demonstrations, meetings, wrote in newspapers, and made
appeals to the Parliament. Russian Revolution was the first to grant such rights to
all women in 1917. The right to vote was extended to some women in England in
1918 and to all adult women by 1928. Gradually, this was accepted by most
democratic countries.
As women participated more and more in public matters, they realised that
women were treated unequally in most sectors, whether education, health, property
rights or employment. Many women writers like Virginia Woolf wrote about how
men dominate over women and how women have themselves become subjects of
this domination. A new phase started in the women’s movement after the Second
World War. It focused on gaining equality for women in all aspects of life. They
campaigned against cultural and political inequalities, which they felt were linked
to each other. The movement helped women to understand that power was unequally
distributed between men and women. First-wave of feminism focused on absolute
rights such as suffrage, Second-wave feminism focused on other aspects of equality,
such as end to discrimination in all aspects of life including education and health.
You would have read about the struggles of social reformers in 19th century
India to end practices like Sati, killing of girl children at birth, enforced widowhood
for life etc. and also to extend modern education to women. The growth of education
among women enabled many women to take part in public life and organise other
women like themselves. This gave rise to women’s movement in India too.
Women participated in the national movement and leaders like Mahatma Gandhi
specially emphasised the importance of women in the movement. Thousands of
women joined the freedom movement and helped to shape the ideas of the
nationalists. As a result, when India became independent, women were given
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complete legal equality vis a vis men. It also sought to end discriminations against
them in property laws etc.
Even though legal equality was achieved, women all over the world including
India still do not have real equality. The new wave of women’s movement is trying
to understand the reasons for this and bring about real and effective equality.

Key words
1. Socialism
4. Feminism

2. Luddism
5. Captialism

3. Orientalists
6. Revolutionaries

Improve your learning
1. Which of the following statement about lives of industrial workers are correct?
And correct the false statements (AS1)
Workers controlled the industries
Living conditions of the workers were comfortable
Low wages was one of the reasons for discontent among the workers
During the phase of industrialisation there was emphasis on emotions and feeling
Romantic writers and artists tried to highlight values of closeness to nature as
described in folk tales and folksongs
2. List some of the problems faced by workers of those times. Discuss if such problems
exist in our times too. (AS4)
3. Write a paragraph comparing the ideas of capitalism and socialism. How were they
similar or different? (AS1)
4. How was the idea of equality being similar or differently challenged by women and
workers movements? (AS1)
5. Draw a poster to illustrate the ideas of “liberty, equality and justice” within the
context of workers, and women. Identify occasions where these ideas are being
violated. (AS6)
6. Locate the countries in the world map in which the protest movements took place.(AS5)
7. Read the last paragraph of page 202 and first paragraph of page 203 and comment
on them. (AS2)

Project
Do you find any such social protest movements around you? Interview with the
leaders of that movement and prepare a report and present in your class.
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Colonialism in Latin America,
Asia and Africa

CHAPTER

17

Expansion of Europe and Early Colonialism
Look at the map of the world given below. It shows the world as it was known to
the Europeans some 600 years ago.

Map 1: Map of
world known to
Europeans in 1400
known as Genoese.

Around 600 years ago, people of the world travelled very little. They usually
travelled on horses or camels or by small boats and ships which only sailed along
the sea coasts. However, the contact between people and countries began to increase
as traders travelled to different countries and continents to buy exotic goods and
sell them at high prices. Silk and porcelain ware from China, cotton textiles, steel
and spices from India, fruits and scents from Arabia and wine from Europe were
some of the most popular goods all over the world. The traders usually purchased
and sold them in exchange for gold and silver and made huge profits. In fact, some
of them were even richer than kings.
Most of the trade routes that connected Europe and Asia around 1400 were
controlled by Muslim kingdoms, especially the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire
was constantly at war with the European
Which continents were the
Christian powers. The Italians had a good
traders not familiar with at all?
relationship with the Arab traders who brought
Which were the continents whose Asian goods to Alexandria (in Egypt) and sold
coastal areas were known to them them to the Italians. Slowly, the traders and
but not the interior regions?
governments of Western European countries
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like Holland, Spain, Portugal and England realised the importance of this trade.
They also wanted to find faster and easier routes to countries like India and China,
without passing through regions controlled by Italian traders. The Portuguese, for
example, wanted to find a route around Africa to reach India. The Spanish wanted
to know if it was possible to reach India by crossing the Atlantic Ocean. They
invested large amounts of money by hiring experienced sea mariners and giving
them ships and other resources to explore new
Why do you think the Italians were
routes. This led to the discovery of Central
controlling the trade with Asia in
America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and
1400 and not other Europeans like
of sea route to India around Africa by Vasco Da
Gama in 1498. Columbus was working for the
Portuguese or Spanish?
Spanish queen while Vasco da Gama was working
Why were the Portuguese and
for the Portuguese king. Soon, English and Dutch
Spanish keen to find other routes
governments also started sending their sailors
to reach Asia?
to these regions.

European Colonies in America
Columbus landed on what are today known as the West Indies – the islands off
the coast of South America. He had thought that he had reached India and called
the local people ‘Indians’. (That is why the original inhabitants of America are
called Native Indians today.) These were simple tribal people who welcomed the
visitors and gave them food and shelter. However, these Spaniards enslaved and
plundered them. They converted them into slave labourers to grow food and mine
gold. Eventually, virtually all native people of the islands died or were killed.
After Columbus, the Spanish government sent several expeditions to conquer
America and rob it. They expected to find gold and silver mines and vast quantities
of these precious metals with
the help of local kings. Cortez,
a Spanish conqueror, led an
expedition to kill the people
and plunder Mexico. He
eventually killed the local king
and put an end to the
independent rule of Mexico.
Similarly, another conqueror
named Pizarro plundered and
conquered Peru.
The English also came to
North America and began to set
up colonies of English farmers
Fig. 17.1: Columbus before the Queen, as
along the eastern coast. The
imagined by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1843.
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Native Americans mostly acted in friendship and extended help and cooperation to
the Europeans. In England, this was the time when the small peasants were being
deprived of their land by landlords. Many of these peasants migrated to North
America and wished to settle down there. They forced the Native Americans to
give up their land and killed them and drove them into the interior.
As the news of the natural resources available in America reached the people
of Europe, a large number of land hungry people started going to America. They
drove off the native people and took over their lands.
Once the killing and plunder had reduced, the Europeans wanted to settle there
and exploit the natural resources of America. However, they needed slave labour
to do the work. They realised that it was difficult to enslave the Native Americans.
They therefore began to transport a large number of African slaves. These were
people who had been captured from the interiors of Africa by European (especially
Portuguese) traders and their agents. These African slaves were transported to
America under very inhuman conditions and sold to large landlords and others.
About 15 to 20 million African slaves were thus forcibly taken away to America.
They were made to work on sugar cane farms, corn fields, tobacco fields and cotton
fields. Their produce was taken away and sold in different countries including
England and France for huge profits.

Fig. 17.2:Illustration showing 292 slaves being stowaged in the lower deck of ship

‘Latin’ America
In a period of three hundred years from 1500 to 1800, most of Central and
South America had come under the control of Spain and Portugal. Since Spanish
and Portuguese languages are considered as off shoots of Latin, these countries
are called “Latin American” countries. About half of the original inhabitants of the
continent had been killed or died of diseases brought by Europeans. A large number
of people from Europe settled there who also purchased slaves from Africa. The
residents of these countries today are a mix of native Indians, Spanish and Portuguese
settlers and descendents of African slaves. A large number of people are descendents
of mixed parents – Europeans who married Indians or Africans.
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Look at the map of South America
around 1800 to identify the
countries controlled by the
different powers.
We read that a large number of native
Indians had been killed. Many small tribal
communities survived in deep forests
while other communities came under the
control of the Spanish. They had to pay
heavy taxes, and had to work as labour in
the mines and farms owned by the Spanish.
Most of their temples were destroyed and
they were all converted to Roman Catholic
religion. There were several small and large
rebellions in the 17th and 18th centuries
by the Indians in South America, but these
were mercilessly crushed by the Spanish
who had arms and ammunitions.

Portuguese
Spain
France
Dutch
UK
Argentina
UK

Paraguay
Liga Federal
Chile
Republic of Entire Rios
Colombia
Peru
Brazil
Bolivia
Ecuador
Venezuela
Uruguay

Map 2:
South America
- 1800.

In most of the Spanish ruled countries,
all the power was in the hands of Supreme
Council located in Madrid (capital of Spain). This council appointed high officials
and nobles from Spain to govern the colonies in America. The Catholic Church also
played an important role in the governance of the colonies. Then there were the
Spanish settlers who controlled the land and mines of these countries. Some of
them were large landlords who had vast estates called ‘haciendas’. Haciendas were
estates spread over thousands of acres which contained silver and copper mines,
agricultural lands and pastures and factories. They were owned by landlords who
employed peons or unfree Indians and African slaves to work on them. Besides
these, there were ordinary Spanish who had settled as small farmers and animal
herders. However, the settled Spanish did not have any role in the administration of
the colonies which were controlled by the Spanish
Why do you think the Spanish
from Europe.
Settlers were not allowed
positions of importance in the
Over a period of time, the Spanish landlords
government of the colonies?
and farmers developed trade and industry in these
countries and exported large amounts of
agricultural produce like sugar and meat to Europe apart from metals like tin and
copper.
The economies of the colonies were controlled by Spain in such a way that they
got cheap labor and natural resources and never worked on internal development.
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The colonial powers wanted to have monopoly over their trade relations. To ensure
these monopolistic privileges, the colonial powers planned the social and
economical dynamics of the colonies.
The colonies were forced to cultivate commercial crops like sugarcane, tobacco
or cotton, which were sold cheaply to the dominant countries. They were not allowed
to develop industries or trade with other countries. It was possible for the European
countries to grow commercial crops on a large scale at low costs because of the
large estates which used unfree labour. These estate owners had no need to use
modern methods of cultivation or production because they had a supply of cheap
forced labour.
The profits earned by the local elites were used up in luxurious goods display,
rather than saving and investing in production. This led to a very unequal agrarian
social structure which also meant acute poverty for the majority of the people.
The colonial system also placed a lot of control on the colonial economy.
Strict laws and other measures of social control were established in the colonised
countries. The manufacture of even
You studied about the zamindari system in minimal industrial products such as
the Nizam state in Class VIII. Compare the nails was forbidden, artificially
Zamindari system in the Nizam state and the increasing the dependence of the
haciendas of South America. What colonies. Thus colonial control
similarities and differences do you find forced a kind of ‘underdevelopment’
between them?
of the colonies – prevented them
Try to formulate the grievances of the from developing themselves by
following people of the Latin American investing in productive sectors.
The people of the Spanish
colonies:
colonies including old Spanish
1.Spanish settlers who owned haciendas
settlers disliked the control of
2.Small Spanish farmers settled in America
Spanish nobles over them. Many
3.Native Americans
revolts broke out against Spain in
4.African slaves settled in Latin America
Latin America from 1810. They were
greatly influenced by the Declaration
of Independence by the North American colonies and French Revolution. Between
1816 and 1826, most of the Latin American countries became independent. Simon
Bolivar led a revolutionary army which was supported by black slaves, small farmers
and people from Europe who supported freedom and democracy under the influence
of French Revolutionary ideas. This army liberated Venezuela. Another revolutionary
army led by San Martin liberated Chile, Peru and Argentina by 1817 and Brazil
which was a colony of Portugal became independent in 1822. Thus the colonial
rule of European powers ended over much of South America.
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By 1820s, United
States of America had
emerged as a major
economic and political
power. It felt that the South
America should be under
its influence and actively
discouraged any European
power to establish control
over this area. The
President of USA, James
Munroe, formulated the
‘Munroe
Doctrine’
according to which no
European power would be
allowed to build colonies
Fig. 17.3: An Inca site of worship known as Machu
in the American continents
Pichu in today’s Peru
and US will not interfere in
the affairs of Europe or colonies in other continents. Read below an extract of
Munroe’s speech of 1823:
“The occasion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle in which
the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American
continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed
and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future
colonisation by any European powers.”
You may note that Munroe was not supporting the right of the American colonies
to freedom but asserting the rights and interests of US. Although the doctrine said
that European powers should not consider colonising any American country, it
also said that an American country is allowed to colonise these countries.
Britain, which had a powerful navy, supported the Munroe doctrine. Britain
was keen that the American colonies were not under political control of any European
power so that they would be free to trade with England and purchase its industrial
goods.
Thus even though the direct colonial rule ended, many aspects of the old colonial
rule remained. Thus the Latin American countries had a social system which
consisted of very large landlords on the one hand and a large number of slaves,
semi slaves and poor small farmers on the other hand. There were also villages of
poor Indian communities. Industry and trade was under the control of the landlords
who had little interest in developing these villages. They received sufficient incomes
by exploiting servile labour. Thus in many ways, old colonialism continued to
influence the Latin American countries. The dependence upon developed industrial
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Why do you think the Latin American countries
remained undeveloped despite getting independence
from colonial rule?
In what way did the Munroe doctrine protect the
independence of Latin America? Did it also limit
their freedom?
How did Britain gain from the Munroe doctrine?

countries like Britain and US
has continued to keep these
countries undeveloped
because of high levels of
social and economic
inequality and very high
incidence of poverty due to
landlessness.

European Colonialism in Asia
Most countries of Asia, like India, China and Japan were different from Latin
American countries in many ways. Most of the Asian countries were densely
populated by prosperous peasant communities. They were governed by powerful
empires that had vast armies. Thus, when the European powers tried to attack the
Mughal Empire, they were repeatedly defeated by Mughal armies. However, the
Europeans were able to establish power over some important ports like Goa from
where they controlled the oceanic trade. The Portuguese, for example, established
a ‘seaborne empire’ over the Indian Ocean in 16th century. All ships travelling on
the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean or Bay of Bengal had to pay a special tribute to the
Portuguese and if they failed to do so, they were attacked and looted.
The Portuguese control of the seas was finally ended by other European powers
like Holland and England which were also reaching Asia for trade. Holland and
England had set up their own East India Companies in 1600-1602 to handle trade
with Asian countries. The Companies were keen to purchase produce from Asian
countries like cotton and silk textiles, spices, steel etc. which were in great demand
in Europe and fetched very high profit. For example, the first Dutch expedition
fetched about 400% profit on its investment!
The European companies had set up trading posts in different port cities of
Dutch: The people of Holland are called India, Africa and Indonesia. Some of them like
the ‘Dutch’. The official name of Holland Holland established political control over some
today is Netherlands.
port cities in Indonesia.
Soon, Europe started objecting to the activities of these companies. They were
buying commodities from India in exchange for precious metals like gold and
silver. By doing so, they were draining Holland and England of their accumulated
wealth. Europe felt that India will become richer at the cost of European countries
as a result of this trade. Hence, there was a great pressure on the Companies to
finance their trade in Asia on their own.
The Dutch Company responded to this change by conquering lands in countries
like Indonesia which did not have very powerful kingdoms at that time. They
pressurized the local people to sell their products at a cheaper price to the Company.
These companies had a monopoly and did not allow other countries to trade with
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them. In 1800, the Dutch Government disbanded
the Company and established direct rule over
Indonesia. Since the government was in deep
financial crises, it wanted to use Indonesia as a
source of revenue. The Dutch forced the native
people to deliver products like coffee, sugar and
spices as taxes. This was sold in international
markets by the government which earned huge
profits. As much as 25% of the Dutch
government budget came from these profits.
This caused hardships for the native people who
could not grow necessary food grains or get
even minimum prices for their commercial
produce. This resulted in acute poverty and
famines. They started revolts which were
brutally suppressed. This policy was criticised
by many people in Holland.
Fig. 17.4: Dutch imperial imagery
The government finally ended the system representing the Dutch East Indies (1916)
of forced delivery of produce in 1870. It now
The text reads Our most precious jewel.
encouraged Dutch capitalists to invest in
Indonesia to set up ‘plantations’ in which a single crop (like rubber, pepper or
sugarcane) was extensively planted and managed by Dutch planters. The Dutch
introduced coffee, tea, cocoa, tobacco and rubber and large expanses of land became
plantations. The plantations were worked by semi-servile workers under overseers.
Many of them were even brought from distant countries like India. The produce of
the plantations were sold by the owners in international markets especially in
Europe. They also invested in mining tin and petroleum. To increase the transport
of these goods, the government invested heavily in railway, as well as telegraph
lines etc. The Dutch Indonesia produced most of the world’s supply of quinine and
pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products, and a fifth of its
tea, sugar, coffee, and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies helped Holland to
develop industries and made it one of the world’s most significant colonial powers.
This power was ended by Japan during the Second World War between 1939-45.
Indonesia became independent after the world war along with India.

China
China, like India, was one of the most populated countries of the world and had
a powerful empire. It was also further east of India and the Europeans could not
control it the way they could conquer Latin America or Indonesia. Chinese rulers
realized that it was dangerous to allow Europeans to trade freely in China. So they
permitted them to trade only in one city with specific traders only. They were not
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Colonial Expansion in India
You have read about British conquest of India in the earlier classes. This is to help you
to remember some of the important stages of this conquest. The Portuguese had
established control over some ports like Goa in the early 15th century. Other European
powers began to trade with India by the end of 16th century by establishing their
trading outposts. Till Aurangzeb was alive, no European power could think of building
political power in India. As the Mughal empire declined after 1700, the European
companies gradually tried to establish political control over parts of the coastal
regions. They began in South India, where the English gained control over Madras
and the French over Pondicherry. They also fiercely fought with each other and wanted
to establish monopoly trade with India. The English eventually succeeded in defeating
the Nawab of Bengal and establishing political control over Bengal in 1757. This laid
the foundation of British rule in India. The Company used the revenue of Bengal to
finance its purchases in India and also used political power to force Indian artisans
and farmers and traders to sell their goods at a very cheap price to it. This helped the
company to make huge profits.
even allowed to move about the empire and were restricted to their residential
quarters. In this way, the Chinese authorities tried to reduce the threat posed by the
European traders. The European traders found the trade in Chinese silk and tea
very profitable but since the Chinese did not want any European goods, they had to
use silver and gold to pay. As we read earlier, this policy was opposed in Europe
they did not want to give away precious metals from Europe. The European traders
hit upon an item which was in great demand in China but was produced in India.
This was opium. The English encouraged Indian peasants to produce large quantities
of opium and purchased it from them at very low prices. This opium was smuggled
illegally into China and sold there. In return, the Europeans purchased silk and tea
which they sold in Europe. In
this way, they did not have to
pay the Chinese in silver and
gold. As the smuggling of
opium increased, the Chinese
authorities suspended all trade
with European traders even in
the one city they had allowed
it. This led to what was called
the Opium Wars which were
fought between China and
England between 1839-42. The
war was supported by the other
European powers China was
Fig. 17.5: British navy in the first Opium war.
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defeated by England which imposed a series
of unequal treaties on China. These treaties
allowed England to trade with China without
any restrictions. It also allowed the English
to set up trading enclaves in China in which
only English laws could be in force. England
also forced China to give it the most
favoured nation treatment, by which any
concession given to any other country
would be automatically apply to England
too.
With this began the loss of
independence of China even though the
Emperor’s rule continued till 1911. We can
see that unlike India or the Latin American
countries, China was not under direct
political control of any European power.
However, it was made to serve the interests
Fig. 17.6: Watercolour on paper titled
of these powers through unequal treaties ‘Macao street scene’ from 1840. Macao was
which forced China to accept terms of the
one of the port cities in China where
European countries. China thus had to pay
Europeans were allowed to conduct trade.
heavy war indemnity to the Europeans,
allow free trading rights to them, keep the import duties to the minimum, allow the
European powers to establish settlements on Chinese soil in which their laws applied
and not the Chinese laws etc. Thus, while the Chinese government was responsible
for handling the day to day administration of the country, the economy came under
the control of the Europeans. Europeans could now sell their produce in China,
purchase raw materials for their industries at low costs and at the same time ensure
that local industries did not develop in China.
You may remember that England was not the only country to trade with China.
Other European countries like France, Germany, and Russia etc. forced the Chinese
government to recognise certain parts of China as areas of special influence of
these countries, where they had a free entry but not the other countries. This was a
kind of partitioning of China without actually doing so. Thus, China was controlled
economically and politically not by one country but by several European countries.
These European countries were joined by a new power that had emerged in Asia
itself – Japan. Japan had a political revolution in 1861 and had begun rapid
industrialisation and modernisation. Japan too was looking for colonies from where
it could get cheap raw materials and where it could sell its industrial products. It
started a war against China in 1894-95 and forced China to give up much territory
and pay damages to Japan.
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Main products imported by western countries
from China were ________.
The product that western countries tried to sell
in China was ______.
An Asian country that tried to influence trade in
China was _______.

In this way, various
European powers and Japan
increased their influence in
China. That is why China is
considered a semi-colony and
not a fully fledged colony of any
particular country.

Colonialism in Africa
Till the middle of 19th century, the Europeans had little interest in establishing
colonial power in Africa. Between the 16th and early 19th century, they used Africa
for slaves. Slaves were taken from Africa and sold off in America. Some powerful
countries like England used important parts of African coast like the Cape of Good
Hope to halt and refresh supplies to their ships on their way to India and China.
These countries felt that Africa had little to offer to the colonial powers in terms
of trade.
Explorations: Europeans had called Africa a ‘Dark Continent’ as they had very
little information about the interiors of the continent. The entire continent was on
a high plateau with a very narrow coastal region. Most of the rivers flowed through
the plateau and reached the coasts through narrow gorges and steep waterfalls.
Thus, European traders had avoided going into the interior regions. Throughout the
19th century and especially after 1850, European countries sent expeditions to
explore the interiors of Africa. They asked the explorers to prepare maps of the
places, natural features like rivers and mountains, mineral sources, forests and
products and the people living there. They used this valuable information to make
plans for conquering and colonising these interior regions. The most famous
European explorers were David Livingstone and H. M. Stanley, both of whom mapped
vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa for Belgium. In the 1850s and
1860s, Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes
and the source of the Nile. By the end of the 19th century, Europeans had charted
the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi
rivers. They now realised the vast resources of Africa. Many of these explorers
were also linked to various Christian churches that were keen to spread Christianity
among the people of Africa.
After 1850, industrialisation increased in different countries of Europe like
England, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy etc. They desperately needed markets
for their products in Africa. They now realised that Africa had many important
industrial raw materials to offer like copper, tin, rubber, palm oil, cotton, tea, cocoa
etc. The European manufacturers also saw Africa as a major market for their
produce. Industrialisation and nation building started very late in countries like
Germany and Italy. They were now keen to establish the power of their states by
acquiring more colonies than other European powers. Africa was the only continent
with a large population and natural resources which was left for Europe to colonise.
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Look at the Map of Africa in 1913
to see the extent of colonial
possessions of the European powers
in Africa.
Compare the map with a modern
map of Africa.
Make a list of the large African
countries and write against their
names the countries that had
colonised them.
Modern Country
South Africa
Egypt
Nigeria
Ghana
Libya
Algeria
Angola
Congo

Map 3: Africa - 1913

Colonial power in 1913

A virtual ‘Scramble for Africa’ began in 1870s. In 1870s, only about 10% of
Africa was under colonial powers. But, within the next forty years, almost the
entire continent, with the exception of Ethiopia and a couple of small states, was
colonized. Ethiopia was able to defeat Italy in a war and thus became the only
traditional non-European empire to defeat a Scramble for Africa: It is used to describe the
European army.
frantic claim of African territories by the
As time proceeded, the competition for European Countries.
colonies and territories between the European
powers increased and could no longer be peacefully ‘managed’ through negotiations.
Thus, the First World War broke out in 1914. This was the most destructive war
humanity had seen till then.

The Experience of Colonisation – Some case studies
Congo
In 1869, King Léopold II of Belgium secretly sent an explorer,
Stanley, to the Congo region in Africa. Stanley made treaties with
several African chiefs and persuaded them to give up their territories
to him. Further, he added the kingdom of Katanga by killing its king.
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Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa

By 1882, Leopold’s African territories grew up to
2,300,000 square kilometres, about 75 times larger
than Belgium. It was called the Congo Free State.
Léopold II personally owned the colony and used it
as a source of ivory and rubber. The Congo Free
State ruled and terrorised the African people, killings
large number of people and forced labour. Each
person in the village was forced to supply a quota
of rubber. If anyone failed to do so, their hands were
cut off. Out of the estimated population of 16
million native inhabitants, around eight to ten
million died between 1885 and 1908. Leopold
amassed a huge fortune. A part of this money was
used to undertake many building activities in
Belgium. There was much public criticism of this
all over the world including Belgium. The Belgian
Fig. 17.7: A cartoon published in
government was finally forced to end the personal
1906 in Punch showing Congolese
rule of its king over Congo and bring it under the
man and Leopold - “In Rubber
Coils”. Rubber was a plant
rule of the Belgian Parliament.
introduced into Congo under
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring
colonialism
French Congo. A concession companies extracted
resources from this region. Their brutal methods killed up to 50 percent of the
indigenous population.

South Africa
The English had established an outpost in the Cape of Good Hope to help the
passing ships to rest and replenish food supplies. Some Dutch farmers had settled
in this area to cultivate and sell the produce to the passing ships. They started having
conflicts with the local African people. They tried to drive the Africans away from
their lands. These Africans were called Boers. When the British began to increase
their control over the area, the Boers were dissatisfied. So, they migrated to new
areas and even established independent republics. When gold and diamond mines
were discovered in these new areas (1869 and 1886), a large number of people
from Europe and Africa and India started migrating to South Africa. They wanted to
earn money from the mining boom. The British government now wanted to end the
independence of the Boers and establish British power over the mining regions.
They fought two bitter wars, known as the Boer Wars, to gain control over much of
what is today called South Africa. These wars ended in 1902 and the British
consolidated all the regions of South Africa into one ‘Union of South Africa’. By
this time, South Africa had a mixed population of European migrants (mainly English
and Dutch), Black Africans, Indians and Chinese. The British developed a
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government system which
favoured the Europeans who
were called Whites (20% of the
total population) and gave them
civic rights of voting etc. This
new system discriminated
against the Africans who were
known as Blacks (75% of
population) and Indians (about
5%). Native Africans had to pay
heavy taxes, and had to live in a
very small demarcated area.
They were not allowed to
acquire land in any other areas
Fig. 17.8: Boer war.
which were reserved for the
Whites. Thus, whites had about 90% of all lands. A number of discriminatory laws
were passed to ensure that the Blacks and Indians worked for the British settlers in
farms and mines. They were also denied civil rights of free movement and right to
form associations to express their complaints. This policy of discriminating against
the majority of the population based on racial differences is called Apartheid Policy.
The African people fought against it for almost the entire 20th century and finally
ended it in 1994.
You would have noticed that from 1400 onwards, almost the whole of America,
Africa, Asia and Australia – that is all the continents other than Europe were
colonised by European powers. They established their political and economic
control over these countries and peoples, and transformed their lives. Yet, they
were not colonised in the same manner or lead to similar results – you saw how in
America, a large part of the native population was killed, and plundered and enslaved;
how Europeans settled down there; how they brought millions of people from other
continents like Africa as slaves to settle in America. You saw how they established
control over the people of India but did not kill off the Indians or even enslave
them. Nor did they try to settle down in India in large numbers. Rather they tried to
establish control over the natural resources of India through taxation of agriculture,
purchasing raw materials at low costs and at the same time selling their industrial
products in India. Europeans did not even establish complete political control over
China but established spheres of influences where they could trade freely.
The European powers thus changed the economic and social lives of the people
of the colonies in such a way as to suit the needs of the European powers. However,
at the same time, they could not stop new ideas of freedom and democracy and
nationalism from reaching the colonies. These ideas gave the people of the colonies
a new power and identity with which to fight colonialism and eventually win freedom.
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Key words
1. Colonialism
4. Explorations
7. Munroe doctrine

2. Latin America
5. Apartheid
8. Opium Wars

3. Ottoman Empire
6. Haciendas

Improving your learning
1. Match the following: (AS1)
i. Opium war

a) Belgium

ii. Ottoman empire

b) Spain

iii. Personally owned the colony
iv. Settling farmers

c) controlled trade before colonisation
d) China

2. How is the word ‘discovery’ and ‘exploration’ used by Europeans? What did it mean
to people who were already living in those geographical locations? (AS1)
3. “Trade played a major role in the colonisation”. Do you agree? Why? (AS1)
4. How did the lives of native people in different countries affect the colonisation –
write two ideas each in the context of – crops cultivated/ religion/ use of natural
resources – for the three continents (AS1)
5. Compare the nature of colonial rule over China and India and Indonesia. What
difference and similarities do you find between them? (AS1)
6. Locate the Portuguese, Dutch, British and French colonies in the world map and
filled with different colours. (AS5)

Project
If you were a person of Britain, could you support its colonisation? As an Indian
could you support or reject colonisation. Give a brief account of your views.

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CHAPTER

Impact of Colonialism in India

18

In Class VIII, we studied how the colonial policies affected the forests in
Andhra Pradesh. In this chapter, we will understand how forest, industrial and
labour policies affected the lives of people across different parts of the country.

How Forests Were Used Before British Rule
For ages, Adivasis and villagers living in and near forests used to fulfill their
basic needs and necessities from the forests. In a way, they were the owners of
the forests. Before the British started ruling, they used the forests for hunting,
gathering wood, fruits, flowers and herbs and for grazing their cattle. In some
places, they cut down and burnt the trees and cleared the land to cultivate crops.
They cut wood to build their homes and to make tools. These people took whatever
they needed for their personal
use from the forest. They sold
some of the things produced in
the forest only to buy other
things they needed from the
market, such as salt and iron.
They did not sell the other
things that they got from the
forests such as wood etc to
earn a profit.
Even though the adivasis
and villagers sometimes
cleared large areas of forests
by cutting down trees for
cultivation, large areas of land
were still left under forest
Fig. 18.1: Forest in Telangana .
cover. Sometime there were
tensions between farmers and tribal people over this. But these farmers and adivasis
who used these forests also protected them. When they needed wood, they cut
only old trees and allowed new trees to
Underline four sentences that
grow. They did not blindly cut large tracts
represent the situation of adivasis and
of forest, but only small patches, so that
their use of forests before British rule.
the forest would not be destroyed.
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From time to time, the people living in forests gave valuable gifts of ivory,
animal skins and honey to the kings and emperors. The farmers who cultivated land
in the forests sometimes also paid taxes. Many adivasis farmed using the technique
of shifting cultivation also known as Jhum Cultivation. The kings and emperors did
not make laws or rules to control how they used the forests because the people
living in forests did not threaten the security of the kingdoms. So, for many
centuries, the adivasis lived in harmony with their forests, fulfilling many of their
daily needs from the forest and looking after them carefully.

How Forests Were Used During British Rule
The situation changed during British rule. At that time,
bigger cities like Kolkata and Mumbai were growing. The
government was laying thousands of kilometres of railway
lines across the country. Huge ships were also being built
and mines were being opened. Large quantities of wood
were needed for all this, so the trade in timber increased
rapidly.

Sleepers for Railway Lines
In 1879, there were almost 8,000 kilometers of railway
lines in India. By 1910, more than 50,000 kilometers of
railway lines had been laid. Each year, almost one crore
wooden sleepers were needed to lay these new railway
lines.
Fig. 18.2: Bamboo rafts being
floated down the Kassalong
river, Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Sleepers: Wooden planks laid across railway tracks;
they hold the tracks in position

The wood for these sleepers was cut from the forests in the Himalayan. and
Terai regions. Wood was also cut and sold in huge quantities for buildings, mines
and ships. This work was done by workers hired by timber traders and forest
contractors.
The British government and British companies made large profits from this
trade. The government would hold auctions to sell the contracts for cutting forests.
The contractors paid large sums of money to win the contracts, so the government
earned a lot of money through these auctions.

Forests in Danger and the Need to Plant New Trees
Have you seen old wooden sleepers used in
railway tracks? What are they being replaced
with today? Discuss why this replacement is
taking place.

The British government started
getting worried as the timber trade
increased. Where would it get wood
for its future railways, ships and
houses if the forests were cut down
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Fig. 18.3: Converting Sal Logs into
sleepers in the Singhbhum forests,
Chhotanagpur, May 1897.
Adivasis were hired by the forest
department to cut trees, and to make
smooth planks which would serve as
sleepers for the railways. At the same
time, they were not allowed to cut these
trees to build their own houses.

so rapidly? The government felt that it should do something to ensure a regular
supply of wood.
So, it decided to plant new trees to replace the forests that were being cut
down. But the government was not interested in planting trees that were useful to
the common people, such as mango, mahua, neem etc. It only wanted to plant trees
that provided timber which was in great demand in the market. So, it began to plant
trees like teak and pine in place of the forests that were being cut down.

The Government sets up a Forest Department
Most importantly, the government set up a Forest Department in 1864. The
Forest Department made new laws and rules to protect the new forests it was
planting. Through these rules, it also tried to ensure that the old forests did not
vanish completely but were cut more carefully. These rules and laws helped the
government to control the forests. The Forest Department officials felt the forests
needed to be protected from the people living in or near them.

Adivasi Revolts
We have seen how the conditions of the adivasi farmers who lived in the jungle
became worse in British times. The Baiga, Muria, Gond and Bhil tribes of Madhya
Pradesh and Chattisgarh, the Koya, Reddy, and Kolam tribes of Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh and the Saora adivasis of Orissa were no longer able to practice their old
forms of cultivation. They were forced to become labourers for either the Forest
Department or for contractors. Or they were forced to work as bonded labourers
for moneylenders or farmers who had come from outside.
Now that the roads and railway lines had reached most places, it became easy
for people from outside to settle down in Adivasis’ areas and seize their land. The
power of the Forest Department also increased. They started beating up people for
the smallest reason. They forced them to pay fines. They also forcibly entered into
people’s homes to take away their belongings. They ill-treated women, took bribes,
got begar (free labour) done by people. All this slowly became common.
The Adivasis started protesting against such atrocities in many places. During
the protests, they would burn down many police stations, posts of the Forest
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Department and houses of the moneylenders. In many places, they would set fire
to the entire jungle. Such protests were made by the Santhal adivasis in Jharkhand
in 1856, by the Koya adivasis of Andhra Pradesh in 1880 and 1922, by the Maria
and Muria adivasis of Bastar in 1910, and by the Gond and Kolam adivasis in 1940.

The Santhal Revolt
From the beginning, the Santhals of Jharkhand had been resisting and protesting
against British rule. In 1855-56, there was a huge revolt in which the Santhals
started looting and killing the zamindars and moneylenders. The Santhals declared
that British rule had come to an end. They wanted to make a free state for the
Santhals. But they were armed only with bows and arrows, and were not strong
enough to stand against the gun-bearing British army. By the end of a fierce battle,
15,000 Santhals were killed and their revolt was finally suppressed.

The Revolt Led by Birsa Munda
Between 1874 and 1901, the Munda adivasis of the Chhotanagpur Plateau,
which is now in the state of Jharkhand, came together under the leadership of a
young man named Birsa. They wanted to get rid of the British government that
protected the zamindars, the moneylenders and the courts of law that had deprived
the Mundas of their lands and their rights over their forests. Birsa was thought of
as bhagwaan-god and people followed every word he said. In the end, the Munda
rebellion was suppressed by arresting the leaders and putting them behind bars.
Birsa Munda died in prison in 1900. However, the government was forced to make
laws to protect the rights of the Adivasis of Chhotanagpur.

Forest revolt in Kumaon (1921-22)
In the Kumaon region of Uttarkhand, the peasants started protesting because
their rights over the forest were being taken away by the government. So they
refused to cooperate with the Forest Department. They openly broke the rules of
the Forest Department. They also tried to burn the jungles used by contractors.
They refused to do forced labour for the Forest Department.
Because of these movements, the British government had to change its policies.
In many places, they made their rules less strict. In some areas, they made new
laws according to which people from outside could not purchase the land of the
Adivasis.

Alluri Seetha Rama Raju
Alluri Seetha Rama Raju was born on July 4, 1897 in
Pandrangi village in the Visakhapatnam district. His mother
was from Visakhapatnam and his father was a native of
Mogallu, near Bhimavaram. His father was an official
photographer in the central jail at Rajahmundry. Raju’s
father died when he was in school and he grew up in the
care of his uncle, Rama Chandra Raju.
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After the Madras Forest Act was passed in 1882, it restricted the free movement
of tribal peoples in the forest. They were now stopped from engaging in their
traditional ‘podu’ agricultural system. Raju led a protest movement in the border
area of East Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. Inspired by
the patriotic zeal of revolutionaries in Bengal, Raju raided police stations in and
around Chintapalle, Rampachodavaram, Dammanapalli, Krishnadevipeta,
Rajavommangi, Addateegala, Narsipatnam and Annavaram. Raju and his followers
stole guns and ammunition and killed several British army officers, including Scott
Coward near Dammanapalli.
In December 1922, the British deployed a company of Assam Rifles, near
Pegadapalle under the leadership of Saunders. Raju had now gone underground. He
resurfaced after about four months and continued the fight. Many tribal volunteers
joined him using bows and arrows under the leadership of Mallu Dora and Gantam
Dora.
The British campaign lasted for nearly a year from December 1922. Rama
Raju was eventually trapped by the British in the forests of Chintapalli. He was shot
dead with a rifle at Koyyur Village near Mampa Village.

Komaram Bheem
Komaram Bheem was born at Sankepally village in Adilabad. His father was
killed in an attack by the Forest Department when he was fifteen. Then Bheem’s
family migrated to Sardapur village in Kerimeri mandal.
He was leading a normal life by Jhum farming. A jagirdar named
Siddhiki, who was an informer of the Nizam, occupied Bheem’s land.
Bheem killed Siddhiki out of anger and escaped from police to hide in
Assam. After that, he worked as a labourer in coffee and tea plantations
for five years. He experienced labour agitations. He learned how to read
and write. He understood the situation in his place through his close
friend Komaram Sooru, who was his secret informer. He was inspired
by the agitations and battles for freedom by Alluri Seetha Rama Raju in
Visakhapatnam and Birsa Munda revolt fought against Nizam’s rule.
By that time, Nizam’s government used to collect tax in the name of ‘Bambram’
and Dupapetti for grazing cattle and collecting firewood for cooking. Adivasis were
impressed and inspired by the message Jal, Jangal, Jameen (water, forest land)
of Komaram Bheem. This slogan was given by Bheem to fight for tribal freedom
and rights and oppose the taxes. Nearly 12 villages in Adilabad were ready to fight
for their land. Bheem formed a guerrilla army with the young men of Gondu and
Koya. He gathered and trained tribal people to fight with weapons.
Jodeghat became the central place from where he started the guerrilla battle.
Surprised by this battle, Nizam tried to attack on Adivasis. At last, on one full moon
day, Komaram Bheem died in the battle against the Nizam’s army in Jodeghat forest.
After his death, Nizam appointed Haimendorf to do some research on the life of
tribal people.
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The British Government’s Industrial Policy

Fig. 18.4: Drawings of Some Marwari traders
from Calcutta.

In the 1850’s, some Indian
cloth mills were set up with much
courage, first in Mumbai and then
in Ahmedabad. Thus, cloth started
being made on machines in India
too! Some educated people and
factory owners demanded that a
special tax should be levied on
cloth coming from Britain so that
the cloth being made in India might
get a better market. The special tax
would make the British cloth more
expensive and this would encourage
the sale of cloth produced in Indian
factories.

You know that in Britain, the government had done the same. They levied a
special tax on cloth made by Indian weavers in order to help the cloth industry of
Britain. But the government refused to levy a similar tax in India on British cloth to
help the Indian industry. The pressure of the British factory owners and traders on
the government was so much that it could not go against their interests.
In 1896, the income of British government of India reduced a lot. The
government started thinking of ways to increase its income. So, in its time of
difficulty, the government levied a three and a half percent tax on cloth coming
from Britain to India. But it did not want to harm the sale of British cloth. So, it
also levied the same amount of tax (three and a half percent) on cloth being made
in India as well.
This tax became the cause of a long conflict between the Indian people and the
British government. Indians had understood that the government would protect only
the interests of the British factories. Indian people opposed this tax in India and
demanded to remove it.
Even without government protection, factories
producing cloth, thread,
sugar, jute, paper, matches,
cement etc. were set up in
India. Their rapid development, however, took place
only after 1914.

Discuss what ‘protected market’ means.
The Indians demanded that a tax be imposed
on British goods coming to India. Do you
think this was a fair demand? Should the
government have treated British and Indian
industries equally?

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Indian Industry during the First World War
During the First World War
(from 1914 to 1918), the import
of foreign goods into India
reduced. One reason was that
cargo ships were on war related
duties, and hence there was a
shortage of ships. Secondly, in
the factories of Europe, things
needed for the war were being
made. So very few goods meant
for the Indian markets were
available.
Under these circumstances,
the factories that had been
established in India started
selling their goods in large
quantities. Because of heavy
sales, there was a rapid
development of industries. After
Fig. 18.5: An early sketch of Bankers in Delhi.
the war ended, Indian factory
owners purchased a large numbers of European machines and set up new industries.
Indian industrialists began demanding that the government should levy a tax on
foreign goods so that the sales of Indian goods might continue in future as well.
The government had to accept this demand for
Why did a rapid development
many reasons. After 1917, taxes were levied on
take place in Indian industry
many foreign goods, one after the other. As a result,
during the First World War?
factories set up in India were able to develop
speedily.

Problems of Indian Industry at the Time of Independence
After a long struggle, Indian industry had got a little help from the British
government. Yet, a very large number of factories, banks, ships etc. were in the
control of Europeans. Europeans had many advantages for these companies. They
could easily contact officers and authorities of the British government, whereas
Indians were never able to do so. All the foreign trade was in the hands of European
companies, hence, they had no shortage of funds either.
Even though the Europeans had more influence on industries, Indian
industrialists developed a great deal. For example, Indian industrialists were able
to control the textile industry. The greatest example of the achievements of Indian
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industrialists was the steel factory at Jamshedpur
that was set up by an industrialist named
Jamshedji Tata.
The tax on foreign goods was a great help
for the Indian industrialists from the government,
but this was not sufficient. Many resources and
facilities were needed such as railways, roads,
electricity, coal and iron. However, the British
government did not pay attention to development
in these areas.
Indian industrialists also had to buy all their
machines from abroad. Industries that would
Fig. 18.6: Some of the pioneers among
manufacture machines had simply not started in
Indian industrialists J.N.Tata, R.D.Tata,
Sir R.J.Tata and Sir D.J. Tata.
India.
For the development of industry, help was
needed from scientists, engineers, and technicians. Educated workers were needed
at all levels. But education was not given importance in India. Industrial development
depended on foreigners because very few Indian scientists and engineers were
there.
In order to promote Indian industry, many organisations of industrialists were
formed even during British times. One of the most important was the Federation
of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI). Such organisations
brought up the problems of the industrialists before the government.
With the end of the British rule in
What industries were established in India
India and the formation of a free
during British rule?
government, the situation changed. The
What were the difficulties in the government
of
India
gave
development of Indian industries at the encouragement to the growth of
time of Independence?
industries in a planned manner.

Labourers in Indian Industries
Industrial Towns and Labour Settlements
From 1850 onwards, machine-based industries had started setting up in India.
The biggest industry was the spinning and weaving of textiles. In 1905, around 2.25
lakh labourers were in the textile industry, 1.5 lakh in the jute industry and about 1
lakh in coalmines.
Needy farmers, labourers and artisans started coming from villages to the cities
in the hope of employment. Along with them or after them, their relatives,
neighbours, and friends also came. The number of labourers in cities increased.
Huts and tenements of labourers started setting up around factories. Many cities
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of India, such as Kanpur, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Kolkata, Chennai, became large
industrial cities.

Work Conditions
In the early phase, work would begin every day at dawn in the mills, and would
stop only at sundown. The labourers would wake up early and go to the mills - men
as well as women and even children.
Once they started working on the machines, there was no question of stopping.
There was no fixed break even for meals. The labourers would eat their food in 15
- 20 minutes break from work, and would ask a fellow labourer to look after their
work. There was no separate place to eat either.
The labourers spent the whole day in the heat, humidity, noise, dust and
suffocation of the mill. Only when the sun set and it became impossible to see in
the dark, the machines would stop and work would end.
This would go on for months. Even a weekly holiday was not allowed. They
were given a holiday only for the major festivals of the year.
However, it is not possible to work every day of the year. Sometimes they fell
ill or had to attend to family duties. People also got exhausted and tired of
monotonous work. But if they did not go to work, they lost the day’s wages.
In those days, payment was made in proportion to the amount of goods produced.
The owners laid the condition that “as much as you make, so much will you be
paid.” Sometimes things went wrong with the machines, or the supply of raw material
was delayed or it was inadequate. Although this was not the fault or the responsibility
of the labourer, yet the mill owners would deduct the labourer’s money. Thus,
labourers were not able to get any fixed income each month.
At the end of the month, the mill owner would not even make the full payment
to the labourers. He would keep some money till the end of the next month. In such
a situation, if labourers wanted to leave the work and go away they could not because their earlier month’s wages were still stuck with the owner.
There were also plenty of fines. The owners would fine the labourers for the
smallest reason - if they came late, if the cloth got spoilt, if the owner thought the
labourer did not work sincerely - there would be fines and they were deducted
from the month’s wages.
All the labourers - men, women, and children - had to work under such conditions
for 14 hours in the summers and 12 hours in the winters.
Then, in 1880, something new happened. Electric bulbs began to be fitted in
the mills. As the hours of light increased, the hours of work also increased. Now it
was not necessary to stop work when the sun set. And now it became common to
take up to 15 hours of work each day from each labourer.
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Fig. 18.7: A poster showing men, women and children walking towards the mills.

There were so many hardships at work and, on top of it; there was no security
of employment either. If a mill
In the early days of factories in India:
suffered losses, the owner would
What were the rules regarding work and rest simply throw out some labourers and
reduce the wages of those who
for labourers?
continued to work.
What were the rules regarding payment of
However if the mill earned a
wages?
profit, would the owner ever increase
For what reasons would there be cuts and the wages? No, that hardly ever
reductions in the labourers’ wages?
happened!

Labourers’ Struggles
Labourers struggled against their oppressive working conditions. From 1870,
there was one strike after another in Mumbai. To begin with, there were no
organisations or unions of the labourers. The labourers of each mill would get
together to go on strike and would put pressure on the owners.
For instance, in 1892, mill owners of Mumbai were thinking of reducing the
wages of labourers. When the labourers got to know about it, they prepared
themselves for a struggle. The government had appointed an official for the
inspection of factories. This is what the factory inspector wrote about the labourers:
“If a reduction in the wages is actually made, it is possible that there will be an
overall strike in Mumbai. Though there is no organised trade union of the labourers,
most of the labourers belong to common castes, clans, villages and can easily
unite and take steps.”
Here’s one example of how the labourers would struggle to protect their own
interests. In 1900-1901, around 20 mills of Mumbai reduced the labourers’ wages
by 12½%. In response to this, 20,000 mill workers stopped work and went on
strike. All the 20 mills remained closed for 10 days.
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Similarly in 1919, the cost of living was
rising but the labourer’s wages were not being
increased. So, the labourers of all the mills
of Mumbai went on strike and the mills were
closed for 12 days.
The labourers not only fought for their
wages, they also fought against the British for
the freedom of India. In 1908, the British sent
the famous Indian freedom fighter, Lokmanya
Tilak, to 6 years of exile from India. In short
time, the labourers of all the mills of Mumbai
went on strike against this for six days.
Why did labourers go on
strikes?
Why were strikes used instead
of any other action?

Fig. 18.8: A poster depicting
labour meeting.

Addressing Labourers Problems
The strange thing was that in the beginning most of the educated people of
India did not pay attention to the problems of the labourers. For them, it was more
important to find ways to develop industries in India. In the earlier phase, they did
not think much about the kind of working conditions that should be there for
labourers.
But surprisingly, in Britain, the factory owners, traders and social workers were
worried by the condition of Indian labourers. They began talking to the government
about these problems.
The industrialists and social workers of Britain began to put pressure on the
government that there should be laws to improve the condition of labourers in
India similar to the laws in Britain. As a result of this pressure, the government
seriously started thinking of reducing the working hours of labourers and making
laws that would give labourers holidays.
The industrialists and educated people of India were unhappy about this change.
They felt that once labourers were given fixed incomes and other facilities such as
leaves, the production would come down and the expenses of the owners would go
up. This would, in turn, make the things produced in the factories more expensive.
If this happened, goods coming from Britain would sell more easily and the
development of Indian industries would come to a standstill.
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Laws for the Welfare of Labourers : A Time line
The government implemented the
first Factory Act in 1881 and made
the following rules especially for the
welfare of working children:
Children below the age of 7
cannot be employed in factories.
Children between 7 and 12 years
of age cannot be made to work
more than 9 hours a day and
they must be given a one-hour
break each day. They must also
be given 4 days leave each
month.
The largest number of labourers in
industries was that of men. It
wasn’t until 1911 that laws for
their welfare were made. According
to the Factory Act of 1911:
Adult male labourers could not
be made to work for more than
12 hours every day
After every six hours of work
there would be a break for half
an hour.
In which year were you born?
Mark it on this timeline. Also
mark the births of your
parents
and
some
grandparents or other old
relatives you can find out
about.
Find out whether any of the
people whose births you
marked were affected by the
labour laws.

1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920

In 1891, laws were made in the
interest of women labourers to
ensure that:
Women labourers cannot be
made to work more than 11
hours a day.
Women labourers must be given
an hour and half break each day.
Children’s working hours were
reduced from 9 to 7 hours/day
and factory employers were
forbidden to employ children
below 9 years of age.
India and Pakistan get
independence from Britain

1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030

Why did the educated people of
India not pay much attention to the
interests of factory labourers in
the beginning?
How would the labour laws have
affected the industrialists?
The British industrialists were
against the development of
factories in India, yet they took
the side of Indian labourers. Why?
Below what age could children
not be employed as labourers in
British times?
What do the present laws set as
the minimum age, below which
children cannot be employed as
labourers?
According to the labour laws what
was the maximum number of
hours that children, women and
men could be expected to work?
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Indian industrialists were
suspicious that the British
industrialists were just pretending
to show concern for the welfare
of the Indian labourers. Maybe
they actually had their own
interests in mind.
The educated people in India
had also come to believe that if
laws were made in the interest of
the labourers, industries would not
be able to develop in India. A few
lines published in a major
Fig. 18.9: In 1931 these millworkers in Lancashire,
newspaper of Bengal in 1875
England were happy to meet Gandhiji and express
show the thinking of those days:
solidarity with the Indian freedom movement.
“Rather than this new industry be
destroyed it is better that labourers keep dying in high numbers ......... once our
industries are well-established, then we can protect the interests of our labourers”.
There was this fear in the minds of industrialists and the educated people, but it
was not fully justified. Factories set up in India had begun to earn profits. New
mills were being opened up all the time. Whatever labourers needed, the conditions
of the risks, an improvement in working conditions became relevant because
industrial development lay in the hands of the labourers.

Labour Organisations
With time, the problems of the labourers became well known. Some educated
people began supporting the labourers and they began writing articles in newspapers
to explain their problems to people. Small organisations for the welfare of labourers
also started emerging.
During strikes labourers formed their own organisations with the help of some
educated people. These were labour unions, formed to conduct the strikes and
negotiate settlements with the mill owners. Slowly, the trade unions became active
not just during the strikes but all around the year, promoting the workers’ welfare
and rights. Such unions began to be established from the early 1920’s. People
influenced by socialist thought were prominent among them. One such union formed
was Girni Kamgar Union with the help of which workers in Mumbai went on a very
effective strike in 1928. In Ahmedabad, under the influence of Gandhiji, a powerful
union known as the Mazdoor Mahajan was formed.
The formation of labour unions made the government and mill owners very
anxious. Now, laws began to be made to put restrictions on strikes. The government
appointed labour officers to look after the welfare of the labourers. The government
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Which were the two main labourers’ began making efforts to ensure that the
unions to be formed in India during labourers solved their problems through
the labour officers, rather than go to the
British times?
unions.
Why is a union or labourers’ organisation
But the labourers did not agree to
important for labourers? Discuss.
this. They considered it better to form
their own organisations to protect their interests. In this way, a struggle continued
between the labourers on the one hand and the government and factory owners on
the other, on the question of the right to form unions and the right to go on strike.

Key words
1. Reserved forest
4. Social Workers
7. Strike
10. Labour Settlements

2. Protected forest
5. Industrialist
8. Labour Organisations

3. Auctioning
6. Marwari traders
9. Industrial Towns

Improve your learning
1. How did people use the forests before the rule of the British? Why was there less
danger of the forests being fully destroyed in those days? (AS1)
2. Whom did the adivasis revolt against? In what ways did they demonstrate their anger
and protest? Give some examples. (AS1)
3. How were the revolts of the adivasis suppressed by the British? (AS1)
4. Make a timeline to show when adivasi protests occurred in different parts of India. (AS3)
5. What problems did the Indian industrialists have with the British government? (AS1)
6. During British rule, why was it easier for the European companies rather than Indian
companies to set up industries? Give a few reasons. (AS1)
7. Labour laws were first made for child labourers, then for women and lastly for men.
Why were these laws made in this order? (AS1)
8. How could education affect industrial development? Discuss in the class. (AS6)
9. Identify the large industrial cities on outline map of India during 20th century. (AS5)
10. Find out the names of the places where each of these adivasi struggles took place, and
mark their locations on a map of India. (AS5)
11. Read the paragraph under the title ‘Adivasi Revolts’ on page 221 and comment on it.(AS2)

Project
1. Visit an office of the Forest Department and interview the official on how forest
could be preserved and wisely used by both industries and local people.
2. Visit a nearby factory in your area find out its history – how has the technology
changed, where do the workers come from, try and talk to the employers and some
workers to get their views.
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CHAPTER

Expansion of Democracy

19

In an earlier chapter, you read about the
many democratic revolutions which
established democratic forms of government
in Europe. Establishing forms of government
which are in accordance with the wishes and
requirements of the people, in which all
people are able to participate freely and fully,
in which all kinds of people find respectable
space, is a dream for which people are still
striving all over the world.
Let us look at the example of two
countries where the people have been
struggling for democracy in recent times.
These are Libya and Myanmar.
Locate Libya and Myanmar in the
world map. Which continents are
they located on?

Fig. 19.1: Peoples’ protest

Libya
Libya is a poor country in North Africa which had been colonised by Italy for a
long time and became free after a long struggle in 1951. WhenLibya became
independent, Italy transferred power to King Idris who ruled the country with the
help of a few rich and powerful families.
The people mostly belonged to different tribes which depended upon agriculture
and animal rearing in the deserts. These tribes were dominated by families of
traditional tribal chiefs. In 1959, vast reserves of petroleum were found in Libya
and a lot of wealth poured into the country from the sale of petroleum oil. The
King and a few powerful families cornered most of this new wealth. Around this
time, a new wave of nationalism was sweeping in Northern Africa – the young people
wanted to establish a modern state that was not subservient to the interests of colonial
powers and which worked for the welfare of the people. They also wanted to reform
their country – end the oppression of women and the constant warfare among tribes
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and establish unity and peace. They also wanted to ensure that the new wealth from
oil was distributed more equitably to all. Many people in Libya were also inspired
by these ideas.
In the year 1969, Muammar Gaddafi and a group of 70 young army officers
took over the control of the Kingdom of Libya. This group of officers called
themselves Free Officers Movement. King Idris I fled the country, monarchy was
abolished and the country was declared a the ‘Socialist Libyan Arab Republic’. The
army completely supported this take over. The movement was carried out under
the leadership of a Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) consisting of 12
members from the military. This new leadership wanted to develop Libya as a
modern egalitarian country and at the same time, follow the basic tenets of Islam,
which was the religion of majority of the people.
As we read above, Libyan society was initially tribal led by the families of
tribal chiefs. People were more concerned about their own tribe and its honour
than about the welfare of all people. Most
What kind of problems do you think the people were poor nomadic animal herders
given conditions pose for establishing who were also illiterate. Women were
confined to purdah (veil) and were not
a democratic government?
allowed to participate in public activities.
The new regime instituted several reforms which led to the rapid growth of
Libya – nationalisation of oil resources; a programme for extension of cultivation
giving irrigated lands to poor workers in order to end nomadism; free universal
education for all including women; free medical care for all; distribution of share
of oil profits among all citizens; development of highly subsidised housing schemes
for all. A major reform undertaken was to ensure freedom and equal status to women.
Women were now allowed to have property and business, and take up jobs in the
government. As a result of all these, Libya was able to achieve the highest levels of
social welfare in the whole of Africa. Average life expectancy increased from under
50 years to 77 years. Literacy rate for both men and women is over 90% today.
It was difficult to encourage bringing democratic participation of all people in
Libya due to conditions of tribalism, nomadism, illiteracy and restrictions on
women was difficult. The new Libyan leadership tried to encourage participation
of common people in public affairs by creating peoples councils and elected
People’s Assembly in the centre. As the society rapidly changed due to development,
an educated middle class emerged and began to participate in these bodies. However,
the government under Gaddafi was not ready to trust these democratic bodies.
Instead, it created a parallel system of leadership of ‘Revolutionary Councils’,
which were appointed and closely controlled by Gaddafi and the RCC. The
democratic bodies had to implement the decisions of these non-elected leaders.
As a result, people lost interest in these bodies but the government kept trying to
enforce their participation. The RCC was also very intolerant of criticism and
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opposition. It used brute armed force to arrest, torture and kill political opponents.
There was no freedom of the press, and independent organisations like trade unions
or other associations were not allowed. No political parties were allowed to function
in Libya.
Such dictatorial functioning helped to consolidate the position of a few powerful
families that controlled the government and the RCC and the oil companies owned
by the government. They came to be hated by the people for their high-headedness
but the people had no way of expressing their discontent.
Rapid development, urbanisation, emergence of new economic opportunities
and jobs meant that tribal way of life was slowly getting eroded and people of
different tribes began to mix up and live together in cities. Most of the new jobs
were available in government sector which controlled all the oil resources, trade
and industry. The new middle class emerged in Libya which was keen on taking up
business and industry but such opportunities were closed due to government policies
and control of the powerful families.
In the latter half of 2010,
there were movements to
establish democratic governments across the Arab world. It
began with a small country,
Tunisia, and spread to Egypt,
Libya, Yemen, Bahrain and Syria
amongst
others.
This
revolutionary wave of demonstrations, protests, and wars
taking place in the Arab world that
Fig. 19.2: A street painting in Egypt, another country
began in December 2010 is now where democratic movement occured during this decade.
famous as the ‘Arab Spring’.

Change in Libya
In cities like Benghazi, the civic amenities were deplorable. A large number of
its citizens were unemployed, and many families did not have a stable income.
People from across the country began to interact through internet and mobile phones
to share their misery. However, state owned media refused to report them. In early
January 2011, a group of people began to protest over delay in the building of
houses and political corruption in the city of Bayda in the north eastern part of the
country. It began with peaceful street marches. There were attempts by police to
crush it down. These protests spread to other cities.
By February, the protests began to take a violent turn. In the city of Benghazi,
people marched against the police, there was firing and people were injured. A
section of people also began to get arms and weapons for themselves. These rebels
included a group of professional soldiers who had left the government’s army, but
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the majority were ordinary people: lawyers, workers, engineers, teachers, students
etc. A coalition of all groups that opposed Gaddafi government came together. The
security forces fired at the people. Protesters attacked government buildings. They
also captured the local radio station. People demanded different things, from
renewing earlier constitution to establishing multi-party democracy. The Gaddafi
government also tried to gather its supporters and stage demonstrations in support
of him. In the days that followed, there was a major civil war. Ordinary people
armed themselves, while some army members also joined the people. Gaddafi
used his army and air force against the people to crush down the protests and many
people were killed.
Many powerful countries of the world like the United States were keen to
intervene and end the Gaddafi rule and install governments that were more favourable
to them. These countries did so because of the desire to control the large oil reserves
of Libya. These countries also supported sections of the rebels and pushed Libya
into civil war. The United Nations Organisation also intervened in support of the
rebels by declaring Libya to be a ‘no fly zone’ – in order to prevent the government
from using air bombing against the rebels. However, since the government
continued the air strikes, France, US, Britain etc. jointly used their air force to
bombard Libyan government positions. Libyan
Civil War : A war within a country among
people eventually succeeded in overthrowing the
different people, parties or regions.
Gaddafi regime.
A new government was established and sworn in on 14th Nov 2012 as a result of
free and fair elections in which over 100 political parties participated and 200
representatives were elected. They have also formulated an Interim Constitution. There
is possibility and hope for a democratic government in Libya even in the future. The
international community is watching Libya to see if democracy will be a success in
Libya and if it will be able to survive and strengthen its democratic processes or not.
Even though the people had benefitted much from the Gaddafi government, why
do you think they rose in rebellion against it?
Even though the Gaddafi government claimed to be a democratic government,
what aspects of democracy were absent? What aspects of democratic government
were present in it?
Why are civil liberties important for democracy? Explain in the context of Libyan
experience.
Dictators try to control press and TV media. Do you know other ways of sharing
information and ideas between people?
The Tunisian struggle began with the death of one trader. The struggle gained
strength largely through the use of social networking websites like Facebook.
Why do you think is it not easy for governments to control them?
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Myanmar (Burma)
Locate Burma (modern name – Myanmar) in the world map. India shares
borders with this country. Burma, like India, was a colony of the British. It was a
major supplier of teak wood, food crop like rice and minerals like tin and precious
stones like rubies and sapphires. Burma also became independent just 5 months
after Indian Independence. They established a parliament with two houses like
India. There were elections in 1951, 1956 and 1960 in which different political
parties contested. It appeared at that time that Burma too would emerge as a
democratic republic like India. However, the Burmese did not have a united political
party to lead them at that time.
You may remember that, in 1947, India had a large number of princely states
like the Hyderabad state and it took a few years to weld all of them into one
Republic. Similarly, Burma too consisted of a large number of small states and
ethnic-linguistic regions.
In 1947, Aung San, a leader of the Burman ethnic group, who had led the country
to independence (He was also the father of current opposition leader Aung San
Suu Kyi), and leaders of the many ethnic minorities negotiated an agreement which
would guarantee ethnic rights and self-determination, and the inclusion of
minorities in the democratic process. However, Aung San was assassinated. Soon
after, the Burmese military began its slow advance into the ethnic states to rule
by force. Many ethnic groups took up arms to protect their states from Burman
rule, demanding autonomy, ethnic rights and an inclusive democracy. As the ethnic
strife became complex in 1962, the elected government was overthrown by a
coup and army General Ne Win took charge of the country. He tried to nationalise
all industries and mineral resources. Free public health and education system were
established. Between 1962 and 1965,
important laws against landlords and usury Autonomy : The freedom for a country, a
were adopted. They aimed at protecting region or an organisation to govern itself
peasants' rights to have land and property and independently.
to rent the land. These measures included the
law abolishing rents on land in order to help the poor peasants.
The army generals have been ruling the country since then. The rulers claimed
they were following socialist policies. This only placed the major resources of
the country in the hands of the army generals. Unlike Libya, where the army rule
led to development and welfare activities, Burma did not see any development and
became an impoverished country where peasants were forced to sell their children
to the army and work in the mines in semi-servile conditions. The Generals who
ruled Burma are accused of gross human rights abuses, forcible relocation of
civilians and widespread use of forced labour, including that of the children.
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Students usually took the lead in staging protest against the military rule but all
such protests were suppressed by the army. In 1988, a major protest against the
army rule broke out and was brutally suppressed by killing thousands of
demonstrators. A new military council took over the power in the following year
promising elections. It was around this time that Aung San Suu Kyi ( pronounced
Su Chi) began to fight for reforms in Burma. Suu Kyi has since been a central
figure in the protests and the struggle for the establishment of democracy in Burma.
The rulers declared elections in 1990. In this election, a new political party
National League for Democracy (NLD) led by Suu Kyi won majority (80%) of the
seats even though Suu Kyi was in prison. But the military
refused to hand over power or even release Suu Kyi. She
was kept under house arrest. She remained a prisoner in
her house without permission to move around and interact
with people. She wasn’t even able to attend the funeral
of her husband or meet her two sons.
There is also international pressure created through
economic sanctions. This disallowed trade between
Burma and those countries. As a result, Burma is not able
to export its products or get necessary imports. This puts
great pressure on the economy. Even though this
ultimately harms the common people of that country,
‘economic sanctions’ are used to bring pressure on the
rulers. Over the years, there has been worldwide pressure
Aung San Suu Kyi: A poster from on the military government to extend civil liberty and
Myanmar supporting Democracy. usher in a democratic government.

Change in Burma
From the year 2008, there have been different forms of changes taking place
in the country such as conducting a referendum to get a mandate for establishing
democracy, changing the name of the country to a “Republic of Democracy”.
However, the government continues to be formed partly through the election and
partly under nomination from the military. Elections were held in 2010 under the
observation of United Nations. However, Suu Kyi was barred from contesting the
2010 election and was released from her house arrest only after the election. Her
party refused to contest this election. As a result, the military backed Union
Solidarity and Development Party won most seats. There are allegations of
malpractices during the election. The military junta was dissolved and Thein Sein
became the President of the country. Military continues to have a controlling
position even then.
In 2011, Su Kyi’s NLD contested in the elections and have won 43 out of 45
parlimentary seats that were vacant. The freeing of Suu Kyi and the successful
participation of NLD in elections are being considered as the beginning of
democracy in Burma.
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The story of Myanmar is still unfinished like that of Libya. There are indications
that the country could become democratic and multi-party elections may happen in
future.

Nobel Prize Acceptance

Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1991 while still under house arrest.
It was her son who delivered the speech. Let us read an extract from the speech:
“... she would begin by saying that she accepts the Nobel Prize for Peace not in her
own name but in the name of all the people of Burma.
Theirs is the prize and theirs will be the eventual victory in Burma's long struggle for
peace, freedom and democracy.
… I personally believe that by her own dedication and personal sacrifice, she has
come to be a worthy symbol through whom the plight of all the people of Burma
may be recognised. The plight of those in the countryside and towns, living in poverty
and destitution, those in prison, battered and tortured; the plight of the young people,
the hope of Burma, dying of malaria in the jungles to which they have fled; that of
the Buddhist monks, beaten and dishonoured.”
…. Aung San Suu Kyi says, "The quest for democracy in Burma is the struggle of
people to live whole, meaningful lives as free and equal members of the world
community. It is part of the unceasing human endeavour to prove that the spirit of
man can transcend the flaws of his nature."
Why do you think the democracy not established in Burma after its independence?
Why do you think was democracy not established in Libya after its independence?
How did students and youth play an important role in bringing democracy to both
Libya and Burma?
What similarities of events do you find in the description of events in Libya and
Burma?
Answer this keeping in mind – Leadership; nature of struggle; process of transition.
Underline the statements that are relating to Political Party and Voting in both
Libya and Burma.
Track the changes that you may have heard about in Libya and Burma during the
year 2012 and write about them.

Some features of democracy and dictatorship
You read about two recent struggles for democracy. Even though the two
countries were very different, the people wanted a form of government which had
some broad similarities.
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Gaddafi and the RCC worked for a welfare state in which the basic needs of all
people were met. All the had an opportunity to improve their lives through education
and jobs. Similarly, the Burmese junta began with some welfare measures and land
reforms but went on only to increase the control of the army. The army exploited
the resources and people of the country. As a result, people were subjected to
extreme poverty. However, both the countries were ruled by people who got their
main support from the army. They did not allow free elections or functioning of
political parties. They both did not allow elected representatives to form
governments. They did not allow freedom of expression, freedom to form
organisations or freedom to protest against the government.
In both the countries, people wanted a government that would be elected by
the people through a free and fair process. In both the countries, people wanted
freedom to express their views, freedom to organise and freedom to protest against
what they think is wrong. Similarly, in both the countries people wanted many
political parties to be able to function freely.
Burma was different from Libya in that it began with democratic system and
slipped into army rule while Libya moved from monarchy and slipped into army
rule. However, both the countries did not have favourable conditions for a democracy
to flourish - they were deeply divided politically and ethnically which made it
difficult to arrive at an inclusive political settlement.

The March of Democracy
Ever since the birth of modern democracy in 17th century England, there has
been a gradual transformation of political systems across the world to conform to
the democratic ideals. Initially, democracy helped the social classes that were
opposed to feudalism and monarchies to build a new kind of social order which
rejected privilege by birth and divine right to rule. Europe and America went through
great revolutions during the 18th and 19th centuries to bring this about .
Industrialisation and colonialism created conditions all over the world which
favoured democratic ideas. An educated middle class which was inspired by the
democratic ideas emerged in most countries. Even though each country had its
own distinct social system and distinct problems, democracy appeared to create
the framework for just settlement of those problems. Thus, each country is evolving
a model of democracy suited to its needs.
In the 20th century, democracy became the slogan of anti-colonial struggles in
Asia and Africa to build independent nations. India, Sri Lanka and South Africa are
some examples of this process. Some of these countries were able to attain freedom
and establish stable democracies. However, many of them could not build stable
democracies (as in the case of Burma or Pakistan). Military dictatorships got
established. In countries like Pakistan, military dictatorship and democratic rule
kept coming in cycles. In most of the countries under military dictatorship, the
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people are organising movements to establish democracy. We saw the examples of
Libya and Burma where such changes have begun only recently.
During the 20th century, another form of political system came into being
which is known as the ‘Communist’ system. The Communists believed that
Parliamentary democracy of the type that is practised in England only helped the
rich capitalists to control the country and could not represent the real interests of
the poor working people. They believed that this was possible only through the
establishment of the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ or the workers. This dictatorship
was needed to ensure that the rich and powerful landlords and capitalists did not get
any power or opportunity to pursue their policies. Such political systems were
established in Union of Soviet Socialist Republic or USSR (Soviet Russia) after
1917, in Eastern Europe after 1945, in China after 1949 and in Vietnam and Cuba
after 1960. These countries built ‘socialist’ economies in which all land and factories
were owned by the government and education, health and employment was ensured
for all and a degree of equality was established.
However, these countries did not allow multi-party elections and one party
usually ruled for several decades; they also established state control over media
and did not allow people to freely form associations that opposed government
policies. In short, they did not allow open criticism of the government policies or
attempts to change the government. Thus, even though they claimed to be working
in the interest of the poorest people and bring about genuine democracy for the
poor, they ended up curtailing the freedom of the people. In 1991, the USSR broke
up as people demanded freedom and democracy like other western countries like
USA. Following this, many small countries of the former USSR, like Russia,
Ukraine, Estonia, and other East European countries like Poland and Hungary ended
the communist rule and established parliamentary democracies. Of course, this
has not been easy for them and many of them too have slipped into military
dictatorships and ethnic warfare.
Today, it is increasingly becoming clear to the people that democracy which
respects the freedom and rights of all people may be the best way to solve some of
the complex problems the countries face. Today, a new kind of democracy is being
forged across the world in which even the poorest and the most vulnerable people
will have a voice and will be able to influence policies and ensure justice and peace
for all.

Key words
1. Nomadic animal herders

2. Urbanisation

3. Political corruption

4. House arrest

5. Dictatorship

6. Monarchy

7. Feudalism
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Improve your learning
Map 1: Democratic Governments in 1900-1950

Democratic government in 1900

Map 2: Democratic Governments in 2011

Democratic government in 2011
Countries in transition

1(a). On the basis of these maps, identify upto three countries (in some cases you won’t
find three countries) that were democratic in these continents for the given years
and make a table as given on the next page. (AS5)
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Year

Africa

Asia

Europe

South America

1900
2011
b) Identify some African countries that practised democracy in 2011.
c) Make a list of big countries that were not democratic in 2011.
2. Read the maps again and think about the following points. (AS5)
a) Based on the maps, can we say that the Twentieth century was a significant era for
the spread of democracy?
b) During the early 20 century, democracy was practised mostly in the continents like
________ and _______ While in certain continents like _____ and _____, there
were almost no democratic countries.
c) Even today there are certain areas that have not established democratic governments
such as _____ and _______
3. Most countries often claim themselves to be democratic by conducting elections.
How did this happen in the context of Myanmar and Libya? (AS1)
4. Why do you think do the rulers try to control the media? Do you know how is media
controlled in your area? (AS4)
5. Write an imaginary dialogue between a person from Libya and Myanmar comparing
the events and struggle for democracy in their respective countries. (AS6)
6. How do literacy and mass education help for the functioning of democracy? (AS6)
7. What is the difference between democracy and dictatorship? (AS1)
8. What is the role played by Aung San Suu Kyi in fighting for democracy in
Myanmar ? (AS6)
9. Read the last paragraph of this chapter and answer the question :
What is a new kind of democracy? (AS2)

Project
Read the newspapers and note down any news related to the struggle for democracy
in Libya or Egypt or any other country. Prepare a file of such news clippings and
display in the class room.

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Democracy - An Evolving Idea

Fig. 20.1: You can vote if you
pay taxes

Fig. 20.2: You can vote if you
are educated

Fig. 20.3: You cannot vote if
you are women

CHAPTER

20

You read about the beginning of democratic
government in England, USA, France in the 17th and 18th
centuries as well as the most recent movements for
democracy in Libya and Myanmar. The evolution of
democracy has had many ups and downs. Popular rule was
established and then overthrown and monarchies
established. Even where popular rule was established, it
meant only the participation of a few people in electing
the rulers. Slowly, the meaning of democracy broadened
and it developed many new layers and shades. At the same
time, it has also raised many questions which are not easy
to answer. Let us consider some of these questions.
Discuss the questions in the class room as well as with
your friends and relatives.

Democracy Means Responsible Governments
Democracy means a system in which those in
government get their authority from the people and have
to answer to the people. This usually happens through the
process of leaders being elected by people at definite
intervals.
You saw in the case of Libya that ultimate power lay
with the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) which
was self appointed and not elected by the people or bound
by what the people’s representatives ordered. There were
elected assemblies in Libya but they could not take
independent decisions and had to implement the orders
given by the RCC. The RCC was not answerable to anyone
except itself.
In a democratic country, the power of the elected
representatives would be supreme and no one who is not
directly elected by the people can exercise any authority
over them.
The elected government functionaries are answerable
to the people in different ways. First of all, there would be
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elected assemblies in which the
Do the millions of poor people really have any
government functionaries would be
control over the functioning of the elected
asked to explain their work get the
functionaries? Does democracy mean rule by
plan of work. Secondly, any citizen
people or merely rule by elected persons? How
would have approved a right to
can people really participate in the working of
demand information about any
the government on a day to day basis? Discuss
work done by the government and
these issues in the class and at home.
the government has to disclose
such information. Moreover, after a definite period,
elections would be held again and the functionaries will
have to seek fresh election from the people. The people
can ask them to explain their work and reject them if
they are not satisfied with the work.
Democracy is based on equality and
inclusiveness: When we say ‘rule of the people’, we
mean all people who are adults, whether they are men
or women, rich or poor, black or white, Hindus or
Fig. 20.4: You can’t vote
Christians or Muslims or atheists, whether they speak
because you belong to a
one language or the other. Democracy took a long time
different race
to establish itself. Let us take the right to vote in
elections as an indicator. Initially only a few propertied
men could participate in the process of voting. Slowly,
the right was extended in some countries to even the
poor men, then to women and eventually to people of
all races and religions. USA allowed white woman to
vote only around 1920. The discrimination against
Black citizens was removed only in 1965. The first
nation to allow voting rights for all groups of people
Fig. 20.5: You can’t vote
was New Zealand in 1893. In New Zealand women and
because you are too young
black people went through great struggle to achieve this.
The first large country to give universal voting rights
to its citizens was USSR after the Russian Revolution in 1917. Yet, even to this
day, many countries make laws which discriminate against some communities:
Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to
Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote.
In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has
more value than that of an Indian-Fijian. It was from the year 2013 elections that an
equal right to vote is being implemented.
Democracy is based on the fundamental principle of political equality and
inclusiveness. In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote
must have one value.
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Even today, most countries do not give voting powers to people who have
migrated from other countries. Actually, millions of people across the world
live without these democratic rights simply because the countries they live in
treat them as illegal immigrants. This is the plight of South American immigrants
in the US or Turkish immigrants in France or Germany. Such immigrants and
refugees are found all over the world including India. Should they not be a part
of democratic governance? Think of some reason for your answer.
Democracy requires active participation of citizens: Often, democracy is
taken to mean only voting in elections and choosing the rulers. However, democracy
also means that citizens should participate in the making of policies and laws by
the government and implementing them. How can this be done? This is possible
when all policies and laws are made after extensive public discussions in which
people participate and openly express their needs and views. It also requires that
people be involved
in
effective
imple-mentation
of the policies and
laws – by forming
independent
citizens committees. This kind
of participation of
people is not
easily achieved. In
many coun-tries,
even the elected
gover-nments do
not encourage
Fig. 20.6: Peoples
public
partipower - how will this
chess board change?
cipation. The
people also do not
show
active
Why don’t people want to participate
interest in public affairs and remain
in governance? Is it because of lack
apathetic. For example, in the much
of knowledge or lack of interest or
publicised elections for the President of
a feeling that they don’t have a real
USA in 2012 more than 40% people did
say in things?
not vote at all.
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Democracy requires civil liberties: People can participate in decision
making only if they are free to know, discuss, form independent opinions and express
them and form associations to press for their views. These are also called civil
liberties. However, these rights were not gained by people easily. Governments
sought to control free speech, free associations and the right of people to know
about public affairs. Most government decisions were kept secret from people;
the newspapers and books were censored and views that went against the government
were not allowed to be published; people were not allowed to form political parties
or trade unions or organisations of their choice but only one party or officially
sponsored parties were allowed to function. Many of these rights, for example,
were not available to the people of the USSR even though there was universal right
to vote and periodic elections. That is why they had to put up with one party rule for
nearly 60 years. Even today,
Many governments give people the civil liberties.
these rights are not available
But they keep a careful watch on the activities of
to people in all countries.
the citizens by tapping their telephones and letters,
Restriction on civil liberties
spying on them etc. Do you think this is justified?
helps governments to remain
in power.
Democracy requires equality: We noted earlier that democracy requires
political equality – that each person will have one vote. However, for this political
equality to be really effective it also requires equality of social and economic
status. If the society is divided into highly unequal classes of rich and poor or high
castes and low castes, then the political equality will become meaningless. Those
with higher status and wealth
Table 1: Inequality of Income in Selected Countries
can easily force the rest to vote
Share of National Income (%)
according to their choice. In a Country
Top 20
Bottom 20
large number of families, the
male heads of family decide South Africa
64.8
2.9
for whom everyone in the Brazil
63.0
2.6
family, including women,
USA
50.0
4.0
should vote for. In many
34.5
9.6
countries like the USA, most United Kingdom
34.5
9.6
of the media is owned by very Denmark
rich corporate houses or media Hungary
34.5
10.0
barons. They effectively
manipulate and influence public opinion by what they highlight and what they block
out. The rich and powerful also have
Why do you think does such high level
immediate access to members of the
of inequality persist even where the
legislature and ministers and are in a
countries are democratic and government
position to influence their policies and
works in the interest of all people?
programmes.
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On the other hand, the poor and illiterate people have no such access to the
government circles. Thus, the governments of many of these countries follow
policies which seem to be contradictory to the interests of the poor and in favour
of the rich. Thus, it can be said that true democracy cannot be attained unless
there is social and economic equality along with political equality.
If a party is repeatedly voted to power, does it mean that people really want it to come to
power, or could it mean that there is no alternative or that people are not allowed to vote
for any alternative? Answer on the basis of the following three case studies:
a. Since its independence in 1930, Mexico holds elections after every six years to
elect its President. The country has never been under a military or dictator’s rule.
But, until 2000, every election was won by a party called PRI (Institutional
Revolutionary Party). Opposition parties did contest elections, but never managed
to win. The PRI was known to use many unfair means to win elections. Teachers
of government schools used to force parents to vote for the PRI.
b. Zimbabwe attained independence from White minority rule in 1980. Since then,
the country has been ruled by ZANU-PF, the party that led the freedom struggle. Its
leader, Robert Mugabe, has been ruling the country since independence. Elections
have been held regularly and are always won by ZANU-PF. President Mugabe is
popular but also uses unfair practices in elections. His government has changed the
Constitution several times to increase the powers of the President and make him
less accountable. Opposition party workers are harassed and their meetings disrupted.
There is a law that limits the right to criticise the President. Television and radio are
controlled by the government and give only the ruling party’s version.
c. In China, elections are regularly held at intervals of five years for electing the
country’s parliament, called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (National People’s
Congress). The National People’s Congress has the power to appoint the President
of the country. It has nearly 3,000 members elected from all over China. Some
members are elected by the army. Before contesting elections, a candidate needs
the approval of the Chinese Communist Party. Only those who are members of
the Chinese Communist Party or eight smaller parties allied to it were allowed to
contest elections held in 2002-03. The government is always formed by the
Communist Party.
Democracy requires free and fair elections: If people of a country have to
really choose the best persons or parties to represent them in the government,
then it is very important that free and fair elections take place. That is elections in
which any party or individual can compete and no party has any special advantage.
In many countries like USSR, Myanmar or Libya, only one or two parties were
allowed to compete. As such, people had no choice but to vote for them. Even in
other countries, parties in power use government machinery to persuade or force
people to vote for them. They also manipulate the election process in such a way
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as to reject the candidature of opposition candidates, or remove the names of
supporters of the opposition from electoral rolls. Holding elections of any kind is
not sufficient. The elections must offer a real choice between political alternatives.
And it should be possible for people to use this choice to remove the existing
rulers if they wish to. If we wish to assess a democracy, it is important to look at
the elections. But it is equally important to look before and after the elections.
There should be sufficient room for normal political activity, including political
opposition, in the period before elections. This requires that the state should respect
civil liberties of the citizens. So, a democracy must be based on a free and fair
election.
Democracy requires respect for law and minority opinion: While
democracy implies a popularly elected government, it does not mean rule of popular
leaders who do what their supporters want them to do. All democratic governments
need to abide by laws and allow independent functioning of the judiciary and the
executive officers as laid down in the law. Democracies also need to safeguard the
interests of those who hold opinion contrary to the majority of the people. Their
right to hold those views, propagate them and persuade people to accept them have
to be respected even if the majority
Some questions on elections and democracy
doesn’t agree with them. The
biggest
challenge
before Let us take the example of an election in India. Of all
democracy is to deal with people the residents in a region, let us assume that 1000
who hold opinions against have a right to vote. In any typical election about
democracy itself – those who think 60% people go to cast their votes. Thus, we have
that democracy has to be replaced 600 people voting in an election. Let us assume that
by some kind of dictatorship; those there are ten candidates in the election and of these,
who believe that power should the winning candidate gets about 250 votes, the
belong only to a particular class of second candidate gets 200 votes and the other
people of a particular religion or candidates get about 150 votes. We declare the one
race. Should they be allowed to with 250 votes the winner. Does he or she really
propagate their views? Both these represent the views and interests of the residents
aspects give us another feature of of the locality? Actually, he or she only represents
democracy: a democratic one fourth of the voters. Is this a fair democratic
government rules within limits set arrangement? Can there be better ways of
by constitutional law and citizens’ representing the people in decision making bodies?
rights.

Democracy – Majoritarian Vs Inclusive
Often democracy is taken to mean the rule of the majority. In any country,
there will be people of diverse views and cultures. So, differences of opinion are
bound to arise. What is the democratic way to settle such differences? We often
use the method of deciding by majority – that is, if voting is done, the view point
that gets maximum support will be accepted by all. While this is useful in many
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simple situations, it can be very divisive in complex situations which involve whole
communities or classes of people. A simple majoritarian approach may lead to
alienation of minority communities. In such situations, it may be more useful to
take an inclusive approach which accommodates the needs of both the majority
and the minority people. Let us look at two important examples in this regard.

Belgium and Sri Lanka
Belgium is a small country in Europe. Of the country’s total population, 59
per cent lives in the Flemish region and speaks Dutch language. Another 40 per
cent people live in the Wallonia region and speak French. Remaining one per cent
of the Belgians speak German. In the capital city Brussels, 80 per cent people
speak French while 20 per cent are Dutch- speaking.
The minority French-speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
This was resented by the Dutch speaking community. This led to tensions between
the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking communities during the 1950s and 1960s.
The tension between the two communities was more acute in Brussels. Brussels
presented a special problem: the Dutch-speaking people constituted a majority in
the country, but a minority in the capital.
Sri Lanka is an island nation, to the
south of India. Sri Lanka too has a diverse
population. The major social groups are
the Sinhala-speakers (74 per cent) and
the Tamil-speakers (18 per cent). Most
Map 1:
of the Sinhala- speaking people are
Communities and
Buddhist, while most of the Tamils are
regions of Belgium
Hindus or Muslims.
Brussels-Capital Region
Should the majority communities
Walloon (French-speaking)
views prevail in these two countries?
Flemish (Dutch-speaking)
Now, let us look at what happened in both
German-speaking
of these countries.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, post its independence in 1948, the leaders of the Sinhala
community sought to secure dominance over government by virtue of their
majority. As a result, the democratically elected government adopted a series of
majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
Sinhala was made the only official language, disregarding Tamil. The
governments followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for
jobs. A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
All these government measures, coming one after the other, gradually increased
the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils. As a result, the relations
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between the Sinhala and Tamil communities strained over time. The Sri Lankan
Tamils launched parties and struggles for equal status. Autonomy to provinces
populated by the Tamils was repeatedly denied. By 1980s, several political
organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in
northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
Map 2: Ethnic Communities of
The distrust between the two communities turned
Sri Lanka
Sinhalese
into widespread conflict. It soon turned into a civil
Sri Lankan Tamil
war as Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), an
Indian Tamil
Muslim
extremist organisation, established independent rule
over some provinces inhabited by Tamils. In the final
war, the Sri Lankan army defeated the LTTE. It also
established a brutal control over those provinces killing
and uprooting thousands of Tamil People. Many
families were forced to leave the country as refugees
and many more lost their livelihoods. Prior to the civil
war, Sri Lanka had an excellent record of economic
development, education and health. But the civil war
has caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and
economic life of the country.

Accomodation in Belgium
The Belgian leaders took a different path. They recognised the existence of
regional differences and cultural diversities. Between 1970 and 1993, they amended
their constitution four times so as to work out an arrangement that would enable
everyone to live together within the same country. The arrangement they worked
out is different from any other country and is very innovative. Here are some of
the elements of the Belgian model:
Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking
ministers shall be equal in the central government. Some special laws require the
support of majority of members from each linguistic group. Thus, no single
community can make decisions unilaterally.
Many powers of the central government have been given to state
governments of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not
subordinate to the Central Government.
Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities have
equal representation. The French- speaking people accepted equal representation
in Brussels because the Dutch-speaking community has accepted equal
representation in the Central Government.
Apart from the Central and the State Government, there is a third kind of
government. This ‘community government’ is elected by people belonging to one
language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter where
they live. This government has the power regarding cultural, educational and
language-related issues.
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You might find the Belgian model very complicated. But these arrangements
have worked well so far. They helped to avoid civil strife between the two major
communities and a possible division of the country on linguistic lines. When many
countries of Europe came together to form the European Union, Brussels was
chosen as its headquarters. This was a great honour for Belgium because of the
faith placed in it by the European community and an acknowledgment of Belgium’s
ability for fair play and justice.
What do we learn from these two stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka? Both are
democracies. Yet, they dealt with the question of power sharing differently. In
Belgium, the leaders have realised that the unity of the country is possible only by
respecting the feelings and interests of different communities and regions. Such a
realisation resulted in mutually acceptable arrangements for sharing power. Sri
Lanka shows us a contrasting example. It shows us that if a majority community
wants to force its dominance over others and refuses to share power, it can undermine
the unity of the country and force the country back several hundred years with
internal conflicts and civil wars.

Dignity and freedom of the citizens
Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting
dignity and freedom of the individual. Every individual wants to receive respect
from fellow beings. Often conflicts arise among individuals because some feel
that they are not treated with due respect. The passion for respect and freedom are
the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout the world have recognised this,
at least in principle. This has been achieved in various degrees in various
democracies. For societies which have been built over ago on the basis of
subordination and domination, it is not a simple matter to recognise that all
individuals are equal.
Take the case of dignity of women. Most societies across the world were
historically male dominated societies. Long struggles by women have created some
sensitivity today that respect to and equal treatment of women are necessary
ingredients of a democratic society. That does not mean that women are actually
always treated with respect. But once the principle is recognised, it becomes easier
for women to wage a struggle against what is now unacceptable legally and morally.
In a non-democratic set up, this unacceptability would not have legal basis because
the principle of individual freedom and dignity would not have the legal and moral
force there. The same is true of caste inequalities. Democracy in India has
strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal
status and equal opportunity. However, there are instances of caste-based inequalities
and atrocities even now, but these lack the moral and legal foundations. Perhaps it
is this recognition that makes ordinary citizens value their democratic rights.
Expectations from democracy also function as the criteria for judging any
democratic country. What is most distinctive about democracy is that its
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examination never gets over. As democracy passes one test, it produces another
test. As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more and want to
make democracy even better. That is why, when we ask people about the way
democracy functions, they always come up with more expectations and many
complaints. The fact that people are complaining is itself a testimony to the success
of democracy: it shows that people have developed awareness and the ability to
expect and to look critically at power holders and the high and the mighty. A public
expression of dissatisfaction with democracy shows the success of the democratic
project: it transforms people from the status of a subject into that of a citizen.
Most individuals today believe that
Discuss the solutions given in both the
their vote makes a difference to the
countries to accomodate social,
way the government is run and to their
religious and linguistics diversity in them.
own self-interest.

Key words
1. Union of Soviet Socialist Republic or USSR

2. Public discussions

3. Civil liberties

5. Internal conflicts

4. Social and economic equality

Improve your learning
1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and legitimate
government? (AS1)
2. What are the conditions under which democracies accommodate social
diversity? (AS1)
3. Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions: (AS2)
A. Industrialised countries can afford democracy but poor countries need
dictatorship to become rich.
B. Democracy can’t reduce inequality of income between different citizens.
C. Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty reduction, health,
education and spend more on industries and infrastructure.
D. In democracy, all citizens have one vote, which means that there is absence of
any domination and conflict.
4. In the context of assessing democracy, which among the following is odd one out?
Democracies need to ensure: (AS1)
A. free and fair elections
B. dignity of the individual
C. majority rule
D. equal treatment before law
5. Studies on political and social inequalities in democracy show that : (AS1)
A. democracy and development go together. B. inequalities exist in democracies.
C. inequalities do not exist under dictatorship.
D. dictatorship is better than democracy.
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6. Here is some information about six countries. Based on this information, how would
you classify each of these countries? Write ‘democratic’, ‘undemocratic’ or ‘not sure’
against each of these. (AS1)
Country A: People who do not accept the country’s official religion do not have a
right to vote
Country B: The same party has been winning elections for the last twenty years
Country C: Ruling party has lost in the last elections
Country D: The parliament cannot pass a law about the army without the consent of
the Chief of Army
Country E: The parliament cannot pass a law reducing the powers of the judiciary
Country F: All the major economic decisions about the country are taken by officials
of the central bank which the ministers cannot change.
7. Each of these statements contains a democratic and an undemocratic element. Write
out the two separately for each statement. (AS1)
A. A minister said that some laws have to be passed by the parliament in order to
conform to the regulations decided by the World Trade Organisation
B. The Election Commission ordered re-polling in a constituency where large scale
rigging was reported
C. Women’s representation in the parliament has never reached 10 per cent. This
led women’ organisations to demand one-third seats for women.
8. Write a response to the following arguments against democracy: (AS4)
A. Army is the most disciplined and corruption-free organisation in the country.
Therefore army should rule the country.
B. Rule of the majority means the rule of ignorant people. What we need is the rule
of the wise, even if they are in small numbers.
C. If we want religious leaders to guide us in spiritual matters, why not invite them
to guide us in politics as well. The country should be ruled by religious leaders.
9. Locate the following countries in the world map. (AS5)
1. Srilanka 2. Belgium 3. Russia 4. America (USA)
10. Read the first two paragraphs under the subheading ‘Dignity and freedom of the citizens’
and answer the following question. (AS2)
Write about the dignity and freedom of the citizens in a democratic country in your
own words.
11. What are the reasons for the people to fight for democracy? (AS1)
12. Give some examples which prove that democracy is practiced in our schools. (AS6)

Project
Conduct elections in your class to elect class representative with the help of your
teacher.
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CHAPTER

21

Human Rights and Fundamental Rights

We came across various struggles of people to achieve equality with others in
the previous chapter. Yet even after independence, different forms of discrimination
have not completely vanished. The makers of the Indian Constitution were aware
that it is not easy to wipe out all forms of discrimination. So they developed a
Constitution which would allow laws to emerge to meet the varying needs and
goals of the society. The Constitution envisaged a society that is based on certain
principles listed in the Preamble. Any law
Write a few important features of
which violates the Preamble will be struck
Preamble you studied last year.
down.

What are the Rights?
Rights are reasonable claims of persons. These claims are protected by law.
All of us would like to live happily, without being made to feel inferior. Similarly,
we have the responsibility to allow others to enjoy their rights as well. Your rights
come with the responsibility to protect and respect the rights of other persons as
well.
The concept of equal rights has been a changing on. We have seen elsewhere
that not everyone was treated equally all the time. Black people were traded as
slaves, women were not given the right to property and so on. But today we would
consider these as unjust and a violation of that person’s rights.
Rights also become significant in the context of democratic systems.
Democratic systems strive to persevere equal ground for all. They allow people to
express their opinion and make choices, including the choice of being represented
by people they believe in. This choice is called a Vote.
Democracy safeguards not just the majority but also the minorities.
Democracies place all people, whether majority or the minority on the same plane.
The Indian Constitution ensures that each person’s rights, irrespective of caste,
race, gender, religion, and creed, are protected. However, there are some rights
which are so fundamental to personhood that they have been given statutory and
guaranteed in the Constitution. They are known as Fundamental Rights.
These rights are so important that they are also expressed by many of the
democratic nations the world over and have been codified by the United Nations
Organisation (UNO) and find a place in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR). The UDHR is a document to which many of the modern states are signatory
too, implying that they will uphold all the basic human rights mentioned there.
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Right to
Education
and Culture

R
Ex ight
pl ag
oi ai
tat ns
io t
n

Fundamental Rights in
Indian Constitution

Fundamental Rights find a
place in Part 3 of the
Constitution of India. These
rights give people a protection
from oppressive governments
and place a duty on the
government to uphold them.
They are so important that if
Ri
they are violated by the
gh
tt
government, any person has a
o
of Fre
o
t
t
right to approach the High
Re ed
gh dom
o
i
l
ig m
Court or the Supreme Court
R ree
io
F
n
directly without going to the
lower courts for relief. Writ
Fig. 21.1:
is an authority given to the
Fundamental Rights
court to issue directions to the
government to protect and enforce any constitutional right. It is an inherent power
given to the court. The court can sue motu (on its own motion) take cognizance of
the violation of a fundamental right.

Rights

Right to
Equality

Fundamental

al
o tion
t
t
gh stitu ies
i
R on ed
C em
R

Right to Equality
The Indian Constitution guarantees the Right to Equality. It includes most notably
the following rights:

1. Equal Protection of Law
The Constitution says that the government “shall not deny to any person equality
before the law or equal protection of the laws.” This means that the laws apply in
the same manner to all, regardless of a person’s income, status, background etc.
This is called the rule of law.
The Right to equality, guarantees that all citizens shall be equally protected by
the laws of the country, whether she be an ordinary citizen, a minister, government
official or a small farmer. Everyone is under the same law. It means that the State
cannot discriminate against and cannot mete out preferential treatment to any of
the Indian citizens on the basis of their caste, creed, colour, sex, gender, religion,
office or place of birth.
Even a Prime Minister may be trailed in a court of law and will have to attend
the courts just as an ordinary person would if there is an accusation of a crime. In
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the same way, if some official is found guilty of a crime then he or she should be
given the same punishment as applies to any other person. No one can claim special
treatment because of his or her class or background.
In the modern State, the executive arm of the Government is armed with vast
powers, in the matter of enforcing bye-laws, rules and regulations as well as in the
performance of a number of other functions. The equality clause prevents such
power from being exercised in a discriminatory manner.

2. Social Equality
Another feature of this right is Social Equality. The State shall not discriminate
against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, and place of birth or
any of them. Further, on the basis of any of these grounds, a citizen cannot be
denied access to shops, public restaurants or the use of wells, tanks, roads and
places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or those
which are dedicated to the use of the general public. The significance of the Article
is that it is a guarantee against every form of discrimination by the State on the
basis of religion, race, caste or sex.
This right has, however, two notable exceptions in its application. The first of
these permits the State to make special provisions for the benefit of women and
children. The second allows the State to make any special provisions for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for
the Schedule Castes and the Schedule Tribes.
The special treatment meted out to women and children is in the largest and
the long range interest of the community itself. It also recognises the social customs
and background of the country as a whole, and the historical disempowerment and
oppression of these people groups. In an attempt to uphold this right, laws governing
civil matters like property laws today have been amended to include women as
coparceners in joint family property
Thus, the Constitution permits the discrimination in reverse by reserving seats
in educational institutions and by reserving posts or appointments in public service.
The extent of such reservation assumes great importance for the citizen, for the
general public and for the State. For example, medical colleges must admit a certain
percentage of students who belong to OBC/SC/ST.
3. Equality of Opportunity
The Constitution guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters
relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state. No citizen
shall, on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, resident, be
ineligible for or discriminated against in respect of employment or office under
the State.
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However, a notable exception that lies in this right, is that the State can make
provisions for the reservation of posts in favour of any backward class of citizens,
if the state feels it is not adequately represented in the services under the state.
That is, the state may also reserve posts for members of Backward Classes,
Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes which are not adequately represented in the
services under the State to empower and lift the weaker sections of the society.

4. Abolition of Untouchability
The Constitution in no uncertain terms abolishes Untouchability and its practice
in any form. Further, the practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing
so is punishable by law even attracting a jail term. The Protection of Civil Rights
Act provides penalties for preventing a person from entering a place of worship
or from taking water from a tank or well.
5. Abolition of Title
In another move to remove arbitrary and unequal classification of the
aristocratic class and the bourgeoise, the Constitution prohibits the State from
conferring any titles. The British government had created an aristocratic class
known as Rao Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs in India – these titles were also abolished.
Citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign State. However, military and
academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of India. The awards like
the Bharat Ratna, the Paramveer Chakra and the Padma Vibhushan cannot be used
by the recipient as a title and do not, accordingly, come within the constitutional
prohibition.
What kinds of rights to equality does the Constitution ensure? Give examples.
Discuss whether you think each of the following is a violation of the Fundamental
Right to Equality. Also discuss whether you think it is constitutionally right or
wrong to do such things.
- While filling water from a public source, some people object if the vessel of
another person touches their pots.
- Some communities are never provided a place to live within the village but always
outside.
- In some schools, certain children are not allowed to serve water because they
belong to a particular caste.
- Members of some communities do not go to many places of worship because
they fear that they will be ill treated or beaten up.
What would happen if the Fundamental Right to Equality was not in the
Constitution? Discuss.

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Right to Freedom
The Constitution of India also guarantees certain individual rights that were
considered vital by the framers of the constitution. The Right to Freedom guarantees
the following six freedoms:
1. Freedom of speech and expression: This enables an individual to participate
in public activities. Citizens are free to express their views in many ways such as
through meetings, publications, plays, paintings etc. However, this right is a
restrictive right and can be curtailed on the grounds of public order, security of
State, morality and public good. Hence, movies are subject to review by the Censor
Board in the interests of public good, decency and morality.
Again there are various laws regulating free speech. Although we have the right
to free speech, it is a right which cannot be used without any thought. Our free
speech must not be defamatory, immoral or illegal. Again, there are other laws
forbidding people to incite others/ tell others to rebel against the government.
2. Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms: On this, the State can
impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order and the sovereignty
and integrity of India.
People have the right to come together or assemble for many reasons such as
to hold meetings to protect their
rights, to discuss their problems or
business, to exchange ideas and share
views etc. Everyone also has the right
to carry out peaceful demonstrations,
public meetings and rallies.
However, there are some
restrictions on this right – for
example, any assembly should be
conducted in a peaceful manner
without the display or use of arms.
Similarly, whenever a demonstration
or a rally is organised, prior
Fig. 21.2: A rally
permission from the administration
needs to be taken.
3. Freedom to form associations or unions: The State can impose reasonable
restrictions on this freedom in the interest of public order, morality and the
sovereignty and integrity of India.
People are free to form many kinds of associations - cultural groups, business
associations, trade unions. For example, you may have heard that many factories
have workers’ unions. These unions hold meetings to discuss their problems. They
make demands to the officers of the factory. Thus, the union protects the rights of
the workers.
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4. Freedom to move freely: People
have freedom to move freely throughout
the territory of India though reasonable
Why are workers’ unions formed? What restrictions can be imposed on this right
problems do they face?
in the interest of the general public. For
example, restrictions may be imposed on movement and traveling in order so as to
control epidemics. Again, in some border areas, the government may think that
free movement is posing problems for the security of the country and so impose
restrictions on it.
5. Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India: Which
is also subject to reasonable restrictions by the State in the interest of the general
public or for the protection of the
Why do people want to move and settle
Scheduled Tribes. Certain safeguards are
in various parts of the country?
envisaged here to protect indigenous and
What is the responsibility of the tribal people from exploitation and
government towards workers who are coercion.
able to find some work in the city but
6. Freedom to practise any
don’t have a proper place to live?
profession or to carry on any
occupation, trade or business: On which the State may impose reasonable
restrictions in the interest of the general public. Thus, there is no right to carry on a
business which is dangerous or immoral. Also, professional or technical qualifications
may be prescribed for practising any profession or carrying on any trade.
The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government
restricts these six freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and
integrity of India. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can
also impose restrictions. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or
have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency. However, the right
to life and personal liberty cannot be suspended.
Discuss the implications of the statement that although the six freedoms
may be suspended, the right to life and personal liberty may not be suspended.
What associations are there in your
area?

Right to Life:
The Indian Constitution also guarantees the Right to Life and Personal Liberty.
This includes:
Protection with respect to conviction for offenses is guaranteed in the right
to life and personal liberty. No one can be awarded punishment which is more than
what the law of the land prescribes at that time.
No citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law. This means that a
person's life and personal liberty can only be disputed if that person has committed
a crime. However, the right to life does not include the right to die and hence,
suicide or an attempt thereof, is an offense.
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In 2002, the right to primary
education became a part of the right
to life. Here, the governments are
responsible for providing free and
compulsory education to all children
from the age of 6 to 14 years. This
makes it necessary for the government
to arrange for schools and for parents
to ensure that their children attend
school regularly. This right has been
added because people feel that all
children should have the opportunity
to study, learn about the world around
them, acquire skills to express
themselves and make creative
contributions to society, and have
more opportunities for their future.

Conduct a debate on the following issues
in the context of regulation on freedom
of speech:
1. A book is written with an intention to hurt
the feeling of a specific caste group.
2. Every film has to get approval from the
Censor Board.
3. The court orders that no one can use public
microphones during festivals and prayers
beyond 11:00 p.m.
What do you remember about the
difference between the role of the police
and that of the court (VIII Class)?
What are the different types of schools you
see in your area? Why do you think are there
such different types of schools?

Rights of a person arrested
under ordinary circumstances is laid down in the right to life and personal liberty.
No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for his arrest. If arrested, the
person has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice.

Right against Exploitation
Under this Right, all forms of “forced labour are prohibited”.
You read in some of the history chapters that some people were forced to do
vetti to work without any wages. If any landlord or contractor today forces a person
to work without any wages or at very low wages, it would be a violation of the
fundamental right against exploitation. Such a person can file a case in the court.
Similarly, if a person is forced to work as a bonded labourer it would also be a
violation.

“Prohibition of employment of children in factories”
The Constitution states, “no child
below the age of 14 shall be employed to
work in any factory or mines or engaged
in any other hazardous employment.”
Accordingly, laws have been made that
prohibit children from making matches,
crackers, beedis and carpets, or doing
printing and dyeing etc.
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Do you think this right has been
made available to children in the
villages and cities in your area?
With the help of your teacher, find
out the minimum wages in your
state.
Human Rights and Fundamental Rights

Right to Freedom of Religion
All individuals are free to follow their conscience and practise any religion.
No one can be prohibited from following his or her religious practices as an
individual. This also means that a person can
decide to change his or her religion. However,
this right, also preserves the spirit of secularism
in India. For example, one cannot commit a crime
like infanticide in the name of religion. Similarly,
the practice of Sati cannot be committed in the
name of religious freedom.
According to the Constitution, the
government does not have any religion. It should
treat all religions as equal as mentioned earlier.
This is what the Preamble means when it says
that India is secular.
How does the practice of Sati violate
fundamental rights?
Fig. 21.3: Places of worship and
people of different religions

Can anyone not follow any religion
if he/ she wishes?

Right to Education and Culture
The Constitution says, “All minorities, whether based on religion or language,
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice.”
Minority groups are usually thought of in terms of language and religion. Whether
or not someone is a minority also depends on where they live. For example, Telugu
speaking people form a majority in Telangana & Andhra Pradesh but they would be
a minority in West Bengal. Sikhs constitute a majority in Punjab. But they are a
minority in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana etc.
They have the freedom to establish and run institutions in order to protect their
culture and language. For example, if Kannada speaking people wish to run a Kannada
medium school in Telangana in order to preserve their culture and language they
cannot be prevented from doing so.
The government also has to recognise and provide grants to such institutions if
they fulfill other essential conditions. In the above example, if such a school is
affiliated with the Telangana State Board and fulfils the Board’s conditions, then it
can receive grants from the state government just like any other aided private school.
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Right to Constitutional Remedies
As mentioned earlier, these rights are so important that a violation of these
rights by the State gives the people the Fundamental Right to approach the High
Courts and Supreme Court. When such rights are violated, they can be restored by
the courts by giving specific directions or orders. It is the responsibility of the
government to protect the people against any violation of their Fundamental Rights.
A case can be filed against the government if it fails to do so.
Many times, the poorest and marginalised sections of society cannot afford to
approach the court even when their rights are violated. To make these rights
meaningful to everybody, the courts under the exercise of judicial review have
encouraged the people to file Public Interest Litigation or PIL. That is, if the rights
of a group of people are being denied, each affected person does not have to file a
separate case. Any person
(or organisation) can file a
An Example of a Public Interest Litigation
case against the government
on behalf of this group of Suppose, the government decides to construct a dam on
people. This kind of case is a river and there are around 50,000 people whose fields
called a Public Interest would be flooded if the dam was built. They would lose
Litigation. It has now their land and livelihood. Their way of life would be
expanded to include many seriously affected. This is a violation of their fundamental
other kinds of public rights to freedom of life, freedom to settle in any part of
interest litigations including the country and freedom to pursue any occupation of their
environmental issues, liking. In such a situation, a case can be filed in the Supreme
transparency and probity of Court to protect the Fundamental Rights of these people.
the governments, the One case can be filed on behalf of all 50,000 people.
treatment of prisoners etc.

Scope of Fundamental Rights
The Fundamental Rights provided in Constitution have been amended from time
to time. Moreover, many new rights have been included into it like Right to
Education. Rights may be modified through the parliament. The supreme court
could also make judgements that would expand the meaning of a particular right.
For instance, right to food has thus been expanded into the context of Right to
Life.

Other Institutions and Rights
Rights like the idea of democracy have captured the attention of people across
the globe. Rights are often traced to the Magna Carta of England and French
Revolution where a declaration of rights of man and of citizens was announced.
After the world wars, United Nations was established with an objective to ensure
that there are no more major wars across the globe. United Nations assigned this
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task to a group of people from 9 different
countries around the world who drafted a list
of 30 articles. This became the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights which was
passed by the UN General Assembly in 1948.
The member nations of the UN are all
signatories to this and thus under an
obligation to uphold these rights. While
these do not have the force of the law,
violation of these rights will be considered
unacceptable by the international community
and in many cases, invite sanctions by other
countries.

Human Rights Commission
The United Nations has been working to
protect the basic human rights of people and
in this effort, they have encouraged their
member nations to do the same. In 1993, the
Government of India passed an act of
legislature to protect human rights. A
Fig. 21.4: A poster on Child Rights
commission for human rights was set up
under this law called the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). The
commission has been given powers of a civil court extendable to the entire country.
The Government has also established other institutions to monitor and inquire
into situations in which these rights are violated. Thus, we have different institutions
such as the National Commission for Women,
National Commission for Protection of Child Rights,
National Minority Commission and State Human
Rights Commissions.
NHRC is vested with the authority to make an
inquiry, suo motu (on its own initiative), or on a
petition presented to it by a victim or any person on
his / her behalf. It intervenes in any proceeding
involving any allegation of violation of human rights
pending before a court with the approval of such court.
It also makes and reviews the safeguards provided by
or under the constitution for the protection of human
Fig. 21.5: Logo of Human
rights and recommends measures for their effective
Rights (United Nations)
implementation.
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At the International level, the UNO has instituted a committee for Human Rights
which looks into the violations of the international pacts.

Violation of Human Rights
Police excesses, arbitrary arrests, denial of right to information and corruption,
sexual cruelty and rape of women, delay in investigation of crimes, female
infanticide, kidnapping for ransom,
deplorable conditions of women, children
Is there a State Human Rights
and downtrodden people, discriminations
Commission in our state? Find out
about its activities.
against women in the family, cruelty to
domestic servants are certain violations of
Think of some instances of violations
human rights. These violations continue
of Human Rights.
unchecked because people are not aware
Write a petition to the NHRC if you
of their human rights. Protection of human
know about any instances of human
rights is the responsibility of the state.
rights violation in your area.
Complaints about violations can be made
to national or state commissions.

Fundamental Duties
Just as we have rights, we have
some responsibilities too. These
responsibilities are towards the
other people living around us.
Unlike Fundamental Rights, even if
a person violates them, he or she
cannot be taken to court.
“It shall be the duty of every citizen
of India
a) to abide by the Constitution and
not insult either the National
Anthem or the National Flag.
b) to cherish and follow the noble
ideals which inspired our national
struggle for freedom.
c) to maintain the unity and
sovereignty of India.

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d) to defend the country.
e) to bring harmony and peace amongst
people of different languages and
religions and to refrain from insulting
the dignity of women.
f) to prevent and improve the natural
environment.
g) to value and preserve the rich heritage
of our composite culture.
h) to develop the scientific temper,
humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform.
i) to safeguard public property.
j) to strive towards excellence in all
spheres.
k) to educate our children.”

Human Rights and Fundamental Rights

Key words
1. Fundamental rights

2. Human Rights

4. Titles

5. Arbitrary

3. Litigation

Improve your learning
1. Which of the following is not an instance of an exercise of a fundamental right?(AS1)
a. Workers from Bihar go to Punjab to work on the farms
b. Religious minority set up a chain of schools
c. Men and women government employees get the same salary
d. Parents’ property is inherited by their children
2. Which of the following freedoms is not available to an Indian citizen? (AS1)
a. Freedom to criticise the government
b. Freedom to participate in armed revolution
c. Freedom to start a movement to change the government
d. Freedom to oppose the central values of the Constitution
3. Which of these statements about the relationship between democracy and rights is
more valid? Give reasons for your preference. (AS1)
a. Every country that is a democracy gives rights to its citizens.
b. Every country that gives rights to its citizens is a democracy
c. Giving rights is good, but it is not necessary for a democracy
4. Are these restrictions on the right to freedom justified? Give reasons for your
answer. (AS2)
a.

Indian citizens need permission to visit some border areas of the country for
reasons of security

b.

Outsiders are not allowed to buy property in some areas to protect the interest
of the local population

c.

The government bans the publication of a book that can go against the ruling
party in the next elections

5. Look through this chapter and the previous one and make a list of the six Fundamental
Rights in the Constitution. (AS1)
6. Are the Fundamental Rights being violated in each of the following cases? If so,
which Fundamental Right or Rights? Discuss with your classmates. (AS1)
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a.

Suppose a person is kept in a police station for 4 days without being told the
reasons, which law was broken?

b.

Suppose your neighbour tries to claim some of your land as her own.

c.

Suppose your parents do not allow you to go to school. They make you take up
a job in a match factory instead because they cannot afford to feed you properly.

d.

Suppose your brother refuses to give you the land that you have inherited from
your father.

7. Suppose you are an advocate. How would you argue the case for a group of people
who come to you with the following request: (AS4)
“The river in our area is getting very polluted by the factories upstream. We get our
drinking water from the river. People in our villages keep falling ill because of the
polluted water. We have complained to the government but there has been no action
from their side. This is surely a violation of our Fundamental Rights.”
8. Read the paragraph under the heading ‘Abolition of Title’ and answer the following
question : (AS2)
The Awards can’t be used by the recipient as a title. Why?
9. Analyse an incident you know about where the Fundamental Rights are
violated. (AS6)

Discussion:
We have been observing news related to suicides in Newspapers and in our surroundings. Everyone has problems. Is suicide a solution for problems? Discuss.

Project
Invite a senior advocate into your classroom and collect the following information
by conducting an interview.
- violation of fundamental rights and its consequences
- violation of children’s rights
- ways to struggle for rights in democracy
- any other fundamental rights related information

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CHAPTER

Women Protection Acts

22

Have you ever seen or heard about child marriages?
Have you ever observed or heard about harassment and violence against
women and girls?
Have you ever observed the various types of domestic violence threatening
women in day to day life?
What shall we do to stop such violence caused to girls and women?
Girls and women are face teasing and violence on a regualr basis worldwide. It
affects their mental and physical health and most of the women can’t dare to move
freely. Similarly, girls hesitate to go to schools. Teasing with words, torturing,
insulting are incidents commonly seen around us. We also watch and read news on
T.V and in newspapers. Such incidents are an evidence of violation of child and
women rights. Even though governments have made many laws to control the
violence against wome, most, people are not aware of them. Even victims of voilence
don’t know where and how to get protection and help.
Girls and women should be aware of the laws meant for their protection. Then
only can they protect themselves from various types of violence and abuse. Is there
any network or mechanism for girls and women to express their worries and at the
same time maintain and protect them secrecy? What are the various forums through
which girls and women can seek protection? Let us discuss all these in this chapter.
Violation of children’s and women rights is still continuing in our society in
various forms. Incidents of there violation happen in family as well at workplace.
How far can such violation of rights continue? There is a need to change the attitude
of society which adversly affects the overall development of women and children.
Proper implementation laws made by the government can provide free and confident
life to the children and women.
In 1989, the UNO proposed international children’s charter on which 191
countries have signed. Our country is also one of them. These rights relate to
everychild without any discrimination. Let us look at some of the important rights.

Children Rights
1. All the people below 18 years age are all children without gender
discrimination.
2. Protection from government for child rights.
3. Right to live.
4. Right to live with parents as far as possible.
5. Right to gain knowledge and get awareness about the world through media
like radio, newspapers, T.V etc.
6. Right to protection from violence and harmful incidents.
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7. Right to get special care to live and for development in case of disabled
children.
8. Right to have good health and get medical care.
9. Right to use mother tongue, follow their religion and tradition.
10. Right to play.
11. Right to avoid the harm for children from getting education and health.
12. Right to get protection from harmful medicines also manufacturing and
purchasing.
13. Right to get help when neglected and suffereing.
Children as well as adults should be aware of the UNO Child Rights Charter.
Government also informs people about this.

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006
According to the Child Marriage Act, a person who, if a male, has not completed
21 years of age, and if a female, has not completed 18 years of age cannot be force
to get married.
If the contract between any two
people of which either one or both
parties is a child, it is treated as child
marriage.
If a male above 21 years contracts
a child marriage he shall be punished
for two years imprisonment and/ or a
fine which may extend to Rs. 1 lakh.
The same punishment will be given to a person who performs, conducts or directs
a Child Marriage under Child Marriage Act. 2006. If the marriage is voided, the girl
should be paid maintenance by the male up to the age of her 18th year or upto the
time she gets married. If the male is minor, his parents should provide such
maintenance. The government will take care of the children whose marriage is
cancelled. The dowry and gifts are to be returned after the cancellation of the
marriage.
Disadvantages of child marriage:
• Underage pregnancy.
• Provision for trafficking and sale of girls.
• Pushing the unmatured into family system.
• Increased abortions, premature births which results not only in infant mortality
but also the death of mothers.
• Handicapped child births or dead child births.
• Mental as well as physical health problems.
• Obstacle to education
• Hurdle for physical growth (especially regarding female).
• Become child laborers for family maintenance.
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Prevention of Child Marriage – A Case Study
Raviralla Kavitha a girl is of twelve years. Her father is Nancharaiah. They belong
to Rangareddy villagae of Mahaboobnagar district. Kavitha was studying in class VII
in an Upper Primary School. She stopped attending school because her marriage was
fixed. This was informed to Mamidipudi Venkata Rangaiah Foundation. The volunteers
of MVF went to her house along with the members of Child Marriages Prevention
Samithi and discussed about the child marriage in the presence of village elders.
Later on, the MVF volunteers went to the local priest. He repeated that when the
Kavitha’s parents came to him with the request of fixing the date, he asked for the
Date of Birth certificate or ration card. They did not show any of them and did not
come back to him. The volunteers came to know in the enquiry that the bridegroom,
Damerla China Satyam, age 23, S/o Ramaiah had not even completed primary
education.
After two days, when the MVF volunteers went to Kavitha’s house, they were busy
with marriage arrangements. They tried to persuade them not to perform her marriage
at such an early age when she is meant to study and still a minor. Kavitha’s father said,
“you say many things but we have another daughter. How can I arrange the marriages?”.
As they were not convinced, the volunteers went to Thasildar, Sub Inspector of Police,
CDPO and informed them about the same. They enquired about this in the presence
of villagers but the parents responded rudely, “Who are you to stop our daughter’s
marriage?” A few people belonging to the bridegroom’s side also came there and
said,” “we have finished all the arrangements. Why do you stop now?” “S.I. explained
to them,” “Child Marriage is an offence. Encouraging child marriage is also a crime.”
After counseling the parents of the bride and the bridegroom, they agreed to cancel
the Child Marriage and they are now sending Kavitha to school regularly.
Sometimes child marriages are fixed for
children as young do 15 years without
their consent. How do we stop such
marriages? Who will help us?

Do You Know?
Seek assistance in case of any harassment
and domestic violence using toll free number
Bhumika Help Line 1800 425 2908 and stop
child marriages. Friends, relatives, neighbours
and teachers can inform the village secretary
and Tehsildar to stop child marriages.

District Collector at the district
level, Revenue Divisional Officer at
division level, Tahsildar or ICDS
Officer at mandal level and Gram
Panchayat Secretary at village level are
Incharge for stopping child marriages.
Anybody can complain or intimate to
the above officers to stop a child
marriage. Sometimes the court may
initiate and file sue-motu (on its own
initiative) when it has reliable
information and punish the concerned.

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The Immoral Trafficking (prevention) Act 1956
and amendment 2006
Girls and women are lured in the name of jobs, bright future, roles in cinema
etc. and taken to towns and cities and sold for prostitution. They are also subjected
to physical violence to make them obey.
Trafficking and selling of girls for prostitution or encouraging them to enter
into prostitution is a punishable crime. Even if girls choose to of their will and
interest, it is still treated as a crime.

Different forms of trafficking:
Sexual assault
a. Forced prostitution
b. Social and religious prostitution (Devadasi, Jogini, Mathangi etc.)
c. Sexual assault in tourism
d. Reading rustic writings and watching obscene pictures
Activities against the law
a. The trafficking of children and involving in them the begging for money
and beating them to obey is also crime, sometimes children are made
physically handicapped by removing their body parts and made to bag on
the streets.
b. Removing body parts and doing business.
c. Children forced sell narcotics and drugs.
Labourers
a. Vetti: Forcing children to work without making proper payments, not
providing nutritious food, clothes and not treating them as human beings.
b. Domestic labour: Washing clothes, cleaning the houses and utensils
without proper wages, entrusting work in neighbours’ houses.
c. Agriculture Labour : Involving in the agriculture work and exploiting them
for more physical work.
d. Construction work : Labour involved in construction of buildings, roads
etc. with nominal payments and providing them with substandard food.
Sadistic pleasure
a. Tying up the children on camels and making them run for entertainment
b. Marriages and adoption without their consent
Generally, people bear injustice and violence and never inform the concerned
authority or take the help of law to be away from voilence and sufferings. In such
cases, the sufferers must inform to the local police station or NGO for protection
and care.
Forcible prostitution is an offence. Such prostitutes are called sex workers.
There are many acts for their protection. The police has no power to beat or punish
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them in the name of enquiry. Along with the sex workers, the brothel house keepers
are also liable to be punished with 2 to 3 years of imprisonment and penalty of up
to Rs. 10,000/-. Using a house or a room or taking or giving a room for rent for the
purpose of prostitution is also an offence.
If anyone is forced to participates in sexual intercourse with someone, it is
also punishable under the law.
After protecting the victims, they should be presented before the Magistrate
after the required medical treatment. An enquiry is to be taken up by a woman
police officer or any Non Government Organisation (NGO) and action should be
taken for the protection of the victim. If the victims are children, they will be sent
to Balasadan. The rescued person shall be given full protection and care and respect
by the concerned government. If the rescued persons are children, they may be
provided accomodation in child protection home where their education, food and
health shall be taken care of.
The punishment is 7 years rigorous imprisonment to life along with penalty
for immoral trafficking. Without warrant, the police officer shall investigate the
case and collect the necessary details to protect the trafficked children and punish
the accused.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

Have you ever seen or heard about
women being tortured for dowry in your
locality? How are they being tortured?
What sort of suggestions would you give
to prevent this? Who will be held
responsible?

If a person gives or takes or abets
dowry, he/she shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term not be less than five
years and with a fine not be less than 15
thousand rupees or the amount of the value
of such dowry whichever is more.
It has been observed that after the
marriage, the bride is teased, scolded,
abused, beaten and sometimes killed or
forced to commit suicide. All these offences
are covered in this act. Parents can present
offerings, articles in the marriage, but these
offerings must be as per the law.
1. Enlisting the offerings
2. Offerings can’t be demanded
3. The offerings that are being
provided must be as per one’s cultural
norms and traditions. The value of
offerings shall not be over and above the
parents’ economic status and never
become a burden to the family.
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In cases of such violence, the victim herself or her father/ mother/ brother/
relatives can complain in the local police station.

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
Our constitution provides the right to live in a dignified manner to all the
citizens. Leading a dignified life means that the women should not be abused,
insulted or humiliated. Such situations can be created for women to enjoy their
rights by giving proper respect to their work. Even now, equal rights are not being
enjoyed by women. Activities and behaviour which damages their value and self
respect start with family. Such violent acts often happen in family to suppress the
women and their dignity. These incidents are against their development.
There is difference or variation in the nature and range of violence that women
subjected to and it is a major challenge in the empowerment of women across the
world. Domestic violence is not only pertaining to individual or family. It also has
politic history behind it including women’s movements being carried out in the
last twenty years. Certain special acts have been formulated based on protests and
movements started by women. However, these acts are not being implemented
their true spirit. Proper sensitivity and awareness should be created along with
effective monitoring towards women’s issues among the machinery of
implementation such as police and other assisting agencies.
The National and International governments have taken up certain declarations
and resolutions in order to stop violence against women, though violence is still
there at the family and community level. The
Domestic violence takes place now
declarations also clear the actions proposed
and then and gradually it becomes a
to be taken up by the governments towards
habit pattern. More violence
development of women. The government of
generates from violence. How do
India is also one of the countries who accepted
we stop this? Who will help?
and became signatory to the declaration and
resolved to abide by it.
Important Resolutions:
“Government shall take appropriate measures to do away with the
discriminations against women in the matters of marriages and family
relations.”
“The men and women shall possess equal rights in the matters of family
property and its management.”
The Beijing declaration and programme of action focuses on the
following things:
“Violence against women is one of the major causes for the decreasing status
of women in the community when compared to men. Mostly women and
girls undergo the violence in the family and in home environment and these
things never come out. It is very difficult to identify the domestic violence
and address it.”
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“The government has to take steps in the proper identification of violence,
protecting the victims and punishing the culprits.”
“Making all legal and judicial systems and mechanisms accessable to the
women suffering with domestic violence. The information pertaining to
protective measures and taking help of the law must be provided to everyone.”
Lakhs of women and children are hurt during domestic violence and undergo
treatment but majority of them doesn’t reveal it. Though demostic violence happens
across all nations , races, religions and it is something confined to family affairs
happening within the four walls.
Domestic Violence - Misconceptions and Realities:
Misconception: Parents punishing their children now and then is not a major issue
to be considered.
Reality: Domestic Violence starts slowly and it becomes a routine if nobody
opposes it. The Victims are sometimes hospitalised for treatment and even lose
their life and it adversely affects their dignity and self respect.
Misconception: Addiction to drinking is the major cause for violence.
Reality: The alcoholism for domestic voilence is only an assumption but the
statistics reveals that 40% of the men who beats their wives are not addicted to
alcoholism.
Misconception: Women shall bear the voilence for the sake of children.
Reality: Violence leads to more violence. Children who grow in the violent
atmosphere will become more violent in the future.
Misconception: There is no way to get out of Domestic violence.
Reality: The violence free environment is the birth right of every woman. The
women protection acts and laws are available and one should seek their support.
Forms of Domestic Violence:
Sexual abuse (forcible sexual intercourse, watching, or making obscene films)
Physical abuse (behaviour that causes to bodily pain or harm, beating, torturing)
Verbal and emotional abuse (humiliation, name calling or ridicule, not
speaking to them, ignoring.)
Mental abuse (threatening to harm, stopping women’s education, stopping
from jobs, force to marry whom she doesn’t like)
Economic abuse (deprivation of economic or financial resources, use the
women wealth, sell their property)
Whom to complain:
The victims of domestic violence should complain to the police officer or
judicial authority like 1st class Metropolitan Magistrate individually/ over phone/
e-mail. This type of complaints can be filed when the domestic violence took place
or taking place or will take place. If the victim is wounded, she has to be sent for
medical treatment and then the report is to be sent to the police station and to the
Magistrate.
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Sexual Assault and Torturing
Recently, central government has appointed Justice J.S. Verma Committee
asking suggestions to prevent sexual assault and abuse. Based on the suggestions,
Hon. President of India issued an ordinance on 2nd February, 2013. Some important
features of the ordinance. are ;
Minimum 20 years of imprisonment.
Recruitment of women police to address the complaints from the victims.
It is not necessary for the victim to attend before the police officers
individually.
There will be no punishment if the accused dies during struggle at the time of
attack with acid on women.
There is v scope to shoot video at the time of complaining and trial on the
request of the victims.

Lok Adalat
Lok Adalat means peoples’ court. All are equal before law. The Article 39-A of
the Constitution of India contains various provisions for settlement of disputes
through Lok Adalat. It is an act to constitute legal services authorities to provide
free and competent legal services to the weaker sections of society. It is to ensure
that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of
economic or other disabilities. And to organize Lok Adalats to secure that the
operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity.
In addition to the above, an Act was formulated which is called “Act of Judicial
Services Authority.” This is a central law. The State government and high court
jointly formulated certain principles as per this Act.
Who are eligible for judicial assistance?
Citizens who belong to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Victims of immoral human trafficking, beggars, women, children, mentally
imbalanced and physically challenged.
Victims of natural disasters, agricultural and industrial labourers and victims
of Domestic Violence and Caste enemity.
. Citizens earning annual income of less than Rs. 50,000.
One should apply for this assistance at Judicial Service Authority in District
Court or High Court, as the address given below.
1. Secretary
2. Member Secretary
District Judicial Services Authority
State Judicial Services Authority
Dist. Court Premises
High Court Premises, Hyd. 500 066
.................................................... Dist.
Methods of Judicial Assistance
Judicial advice is given free of cost by the advocate.
After verification of the cases and if it is found necessary, the advocates may
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be appointed on behalf of the complainants to take up the cases in the court.
To bear the expenditures of court and court fee.
The xerox copies of the judgment will be given free of cost to those who
sought judicial assistance.
It is necessary to have a thorough understanding and awareness for the better
implementation of the acts. Then only, the purpose and provision of human rights
will be fulfilled and everyone would lead a, respectable and dignified life.

Key words
1. Dowry
4. Sexual Assault

2. Domestic Violence
5. Forced Prostitution

3. Lok Adalat

Improve your learning
1. What are the disadvantages of child marriage? (AS1)
2. Why has domestic violence become a common practice? In what forms is domestic
violence seen in society? Find out the reasons. (AS1)
3. You have read about various problems faced by girls and women. Have you noticed
any sort of problems in your village/ town? Specify them and what is to be
done? (AS4)
4. Many acts have been are made by the government. What do you suggest for better
implementation of these acts? (AS4)
5. Write an essay on general problems faced by women? (AS6)
6. Imagine that you are Tahsildar. How would you prevent child marriage? (AS4)
7. Prepare a pamphlet to understand the problems faced by the women. (AS6)
8. Read the paragraph under the title ‘Sexual Assault and Torturing’ of page 282 and
comment on it. (AS2)

Discussion:
1. Have you ever seen that the marriages are arranged for Girls below the age of 18
years and Boys below the age of 21 years ? Discuss such cases of your locality.
How do they affect the Girls. Do you support Child marriages? Why/Why not?
Show preventive measures.
2. What are the different ways of Domestic violence? Discuss a few incidents and
cases in the classroom. In what way does the domestic violence affect the family
and others. What is expected to avoid domestic violence?
3. Drinking has become an addiction today. Many people are addicted to drinking.
Discuss on the family conditions of such people. How does drinking affect the
children and others? If you were in such family, what would you do?

Project
What facilities does the government provide to the poor for seeking judicial justice?
Consult a lawyer and get there information about this?
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CHAPTER

Disaster Management

23

Human Induced Disaster
How are natural hazards natural? Have you ever tried to analyse this question?
Let us take the example of the floods in Mumbai. What led to the huge loss of life
and property? Is it only heavy rain which caused this massive destruction? No, there
are various other reasons that led to this large scale destruction. Let us list some of
them :
a. Unplanned growth of cities
b. Lack of proper drainage facility
c. Increased population etc.
If we look at the causes, all of them are human induced and if we are more
careful about them, many such disasters can be prevented. So, we can say that natural
hazards are not always natural, because human beings play a major role in inducing
them.
The disasters that are caused because of human negligence or deliberately by
an individual or a group can be termed as Human-made. These disasters cost the
most in terms of human suffering, loss of life and long term damage to a country’s
economy and productive capacity.
Let us now look at different human made disasters briefly.

Accident Related Disasters
Road, rail and air accidents are some of the disasters that take place on a day to
day basis. Rapid development and expansion of road networks for better connectivity
and the increase in number of motor vehicles have led to a substantial rise in levels
of both passenger and freight movement. The number of road accidents and fatalities
has also been growing in recent years.
In India, about eighty thousand people are killed in road accidents every year,
which is thirteen percent of the total fatality all over the world. More than half of
the people killed in traffic crashes are young people within the age group of 15-44
years who are often the bread winners of the family. In most of the cases, crashes
occur either due to carelessness, restlessness, overspeed, violation of traffic rules,
drunken driving, poor maintenance of the vehicle, bad weather conditions etc. All
these add to the rising number of accidents and road fatalities. It has been estimated
that in the year 2000, more than 3 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
was lost due to accidents. Hence, road safety education is as essential as any other
basic skills of survival. The Road Safety Week is observed in January every year
throughout the country. The theme of the Road Safety Week in 2006 was ‘Road
Safety and no Accident’.
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Here are some dos and don’ts for you while you are walking to school or going
by bus.
No matter how old you are, it is important to know the traffic rules which are
made for your safety and the safety of your family.
Dos
Drive if you have a legal license
and have attained the age of 18.
Always walk on the footpath.
If there is no footpath, walk on the
extreme right hand side of the road.
Cross only at Zebra crossing and at
traffic signals. Wherever such
facilities are not available, look for
a safe place to cross and look on
either side before crossing the road.
Know the road signals and honour them.

Don’ts
Don’t be impatient on the road
and don’t run on the road.
Never cross the road at a corner/curve
as the motorist, while taking the turn,
will not be able to see you in time.
Don’t try to get on a moving
bus/ rickshaw as you might slip and
fall.

Don’t board a bus other than the
one decided by the school.
Be at the bus stop 5 minutes before, the sch- Don’t shout or make noises in the
eduled time leave home well in time. Board bus as it distracts the bus driver
the bus when it has come to a halt and without and diverts his attention.
rushing or pushing. Follow the queue.
Hold on to the railing of the bus if at all you Don’t sit or stand on the footboard
have to travel standing in the moving bus.
of the bus.
If you are riding a two wheeler, then you must Don’t move or swing your body parts
wear helmets so that your head is protected. outside a moving or stationary vehicle.
When exiting the bus, be careful that clothing If you drop something near or under
and book bags with straps don’t get caught
the bus, tell the bus driver. Never try to
in the handrail or door. More action the
pick it up. The driver may not see you
vehicles from the front only, not from back. and begin to drive away.
The following people should not drive vehicles:
•

Having consumed alcohol.

•

Have been taking any medicine or drug that affects their responses.

•

Are tired, as tiredness affects the driving skills and reaction time.

•

Are sick or injured.

•

Are angry or upset.
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You, as a student or a volunteer, can do wonders to reduce the number of deaths
by creating more awareness on road safety. In case you see a victim, you may call
for 108. You can seek the help of the policemen or the local people and ask for
medical help, if necessary.

Rail Accidents
Earlier, railway transportation appeared to be safe due to slower speeds, shorter
trips and lower density traffic.
With the largest network of railways in the world, the number of railway
accidents has increased in India. The most common type of rail accidents are
derailment which takes place due to lack of proper maintenance, human error or
sabotage. This causes huge losses to life and inflicts injuries and disabilities to
many more. The transportation of various highly inflammable products like coal,
oil etc. also leads to accidents.
The 150 year old shabby Ulta Pool bridge in Bhagalpur district of Bihar
collapsed, apparently due to poor maintenance, and fell over the Howrah-Jamalpur
Superfast passenger train passing under the bridge, killing at least 35 people on
December 1st 2006.
We hear of such horrifying stories every now and then. Let us try to identify
some safety measures that could be taken to reduce the number of such accidents.

Fig. 23.1: Rail accidents.

Dos
!

At railway crossings, pay attention to the signal and the swing barrier.

!

In case of unmanned crossing, get down from the vehicle and look at both the
sides of the track before crossing the track.

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Don’ts
!

Don’t get try to underneath the closed signal barriers and cross them.

!

Don’t stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where evacuation is not possible.

!

Don’t carry flammable materials on the trains.

!

Don’t stand or lean out of the door in a moving train.

!

Don’t swing parts of your body outside a moving or stationary train.

!

Don’t smoke in the train. If you see anyone doing so, you can request them
not to do it.

!

Don’t walk across the railway tracks. Use the foot bridge to change platforms.

!

Don’t touch objects which are suspicious. Never play on the tracks or in the
railroad yards. Raiload cars can move suddenly and unexpectedly.

!

Never throw anything at the train. Severe injuries and even deaths have occurred
from objects thrown at trains.

Air Accidents
Air India Flight 182 Kanishka was blown up mid-flight on 23 June 1985 by a
bomb. The flight was in the first leg on its Montreal-London-Delhi-Bombay
(Mumbai) flight route when it exploded off the coast of Ireland. The plane crashed
into the Atlantic Ocean. All 307 passengers and 22 crew on board died.
Across the world, including India, air accidents have increased. Many factors
govern the safety of the
passengers in the aircraft
like increase in the
number of aircrafts,
technical problems, fire,
landing and take off
condition,
the
environment that the
airline operates in
(mountainous terrains or
frequent storms), factors
like airport security in
cases of hijackings,
bomb attacks etc.
Fig. 23.2: Air Accident.
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Some safety measures that can be taken up are :
On boarding the aircraft there are some things that you need to remember:
Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration.
Carefully read the safety briefing card that is there in the seat pocket.
Know where the nearest safety emergency exit is and know how to open it in
case of emergency.
Always keep your seat belt fastened when you are sitting an your seat.
If in case you are involved in an air accident, you should remember the
following things:
Stay calm. Listen to the crew members and do what they say. The cabin crew’s
most important job is to help you.
Before you try to open any emergency exit yourself, look outside the window.
If you see a fire outside the door, don’t open it as flames may spread into the
cabin. Try to use the alternate exit route.
Remember that smoke rises up. So, try to stay down if there is smoke in the
cabin. Follow the track of emergency lights embedded on the floor, they lead
to an exit. Cover over your nose and mouth with a cloth.

Fire Accidents
The 2004 fire in a school in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu sparked off debates and
arguments on the safety of schools in the country. 93 innocent people were charred
to death. The main causes of this fire were lack of awareness amongst children and
teachers as to what to do in case
of a fire, lack of preparedness,
kitchen being close to the
classroom etc. However,
incidents like these are not new.
Such incidents lead to huge
loss to life and property because
of human negligence or lack of
awareness.
Fire is a phenomenon of
combustion manifested in
intense heat and light in the
form of a glow or flames.
Around 30,000 precious lives
are lost because of fire related
incidents every year. Heat, fuel,
and oxygen/ are the three
Fig. 23.3: Fire accident.
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ingredients which cause a fire. By cutting the supply of any one, we can control
fire.
Dos and Don’ts at the time of Fire Accidents:
!

If you see smoke or flames, raise the alarm.

!

Get out of the building as soon as possible. Cover yourself if you can. Use
steps instead lift in case of fire. Keep the escape routes clear in the corridors.

!

Find a phone and call 101. Ask for the fire brigade, and then give your address
slowly and clearly to reach soon.

!

If there’s smoke, crawl along the floor, as the air is cleanest there. Hot air
rises up. If your escape route is blocked, go into a room with a window, put
things round the door to stop smoke getting in, open the outside window and
call for help.

!

A closed door slows down the spread of a fire. While evacuating, it is necessary
that we close the doors.

!

Switch off all the electrical appliances. The best thing one could do is to
turn off the main switchboard.

!

Check for worn or tape up cables or leads. These are dangerous and you
should replace them. In case, the plug points are at a very low level, it is
necessary that they are taped especially in the primary section of the school
as the children might put their fingers inside which might lead to an accident.

!

Wherever you are, watch out for damaged wiring in the school. In case, there
are walls that soak or wet then the walls should be immediately repaired and
the wires must be replaced.

Don’ts
!

Don’t go back into the building - not for toys or even pets. Fire fighters can
search the house much more quickly than you can.

!

Never hide in a cupboard or under a bed. You need to raise the alarm and get
out.

!

The cables shouldn’t be put under the carpets or mats where they can become
worn out. This is mainly seen in the administrative unit of the school.

!

Lights shouldn’t be positioned near the curtains and other materials that could
burn easily.

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The Threat of Terrorism

Activity

Mahatma Gandhi preached ahimsa or non- From the nearest fire station, find out
violence and truth as the tools for peaceful what are the other simple Dos and
resolution of issues between people, Don’ts that you can follow and
communities or countries. Over the years, as awareness to reduce fire accidents.
science and technology have progressed, so has
man’s inherent greed for power and wealth, along
with increased hostility between various groups of people in the world. Contrary to
the hope of the integration of population across the globe into a ‘world community’
in harmony with each other, which was expected as a result of development, war
and internal conflicts have plagued the world, causing immense suffering to vast
numbers of people.
Find out about the terrorist attacks that have taken place recently in
India. Discuss what effect do they have on children.
Terrorism has become common in certain parts of the world, including parts of
India. In these areas, children live under the constant fear of attacks and violence.
Often, they do not attend formal schools and don’t lead normal lives.

Fig. 23.4: Terrorist attack on Taj Hotel, Mumbai.

In case terror strikes in your area, here are some things that you need to do.
Remain calm and relaxed and be patient.
Follow the advice of local emergency officials.
Listen to your radio or television for news and instructions.
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Fig. 23.5: Bomb blast at Dilsukhnagar (Hyderabad)-2013

If a disaster happens near you, check for injuries. Give first aid and get help
for seriously injured people.
If you notice any unidentified briefcases, bags, cycles, tiffin boxes, inform
police. Stay away from those things.
Shut off any other damaged utilities.
Confine or secure your pets.

Activity

Identify recent terrorist acts that have
taken place in India and discuss the
possible effects of these acts on
children.

Call your family contacts. Do not use the
telephone again unless it is a lifethreatening emergency.
Check on your neighbors, especially those
who are elderly or disabled.

Be alert, Be vigilant and Be safe…
1. Inform the police if you see any unowned objects like bags, suitcase etc.
lying in public places or in a public transport as it could contain explosive
device.
2. Call police Control Room on Telephone No. 100. Every citizen has the right
to call the police up.
3. After informing the police try to keep a watch on the suspected object and
caution others to keep away from it.
4. Be alert of any suspicious behavior, parked vehicle etc.
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Citizen safety is everyone’s concern.
Different measures are adopted by various
agencies to create awareness on safety.
Police has issued some posters that can help
us fight terrorism and help us in leading a
safe life. Read them carefully and try to
follow the tips and guidelines in your life.

Key words
1. World community 2. Terrorism

For Parents

• First and most important, adults need
to focus on the children and their lives
in the aftermath of the horrific events.
• Helping children to separate fact from
fiction is also important.

• Adults should try to discuss known facts
with children, and help avoid
speculation or exaggeration.

Improve your learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Explain how a natural harzard becomes a disaster? (AS1)
What is Terrorism? What are the motives of terrorists? (AS1)
What safety measures should be followed to avoid fire accidents? (AS1)
What are the main causes of road accidents? How can we reduce the road
accidents? (AS1)
Terrorist attacks cause loss of life and wealth. What are the precautions to be taken
to prevent these activities? (AS4)
Identify the causes of rail accidents? (AS1)
List out the reasons and risk inducing factors in your home, school or village. (AS4)
Locate the following places attacked by terrorists in the India map. (AS5)
a) Mumbai b) Hyderabad
c) Bhagalpur
d) Kumbakonam e) Bangalore
Write about an incident related to disaster you know. (AS6)
Read the para titled ‘Fire Accidents’ on page 288 and comment on it. (AS2)

Interview:
Conduct an interview with any of the victim of road accident, inviting him/her to
classroom and discuss on his/her sufferings and preventive measures.

Project
1. Collect information from newspapers and magazines about the human induced
disasters that have taken place in the past few years in your state. Find out about
measures that are being taken in your area to reduce such risks in the future.
2. List the various losses incurred due to terrorism.
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Traffic Education

CHAPTER

24

Undoubtedly the innovation of wheel has brought drastic change in
transportation of goods as well as people. Due to increase in population,
industrialisation, urbanisation and globalisation, there is a heavy increase in vehicular
traffic. So, systematic regulation is required to ensure free flow of traffic.
Regulation is nothing but to ensure that every road user follow traffic rules. It is
the responsibility of every end user of the road to follow traffic rules.

What is traffic?
Movement of any object from one place to another is traffic like wise movement
of any vehicle from one place to another place on the road is road traffic.
What is Traffic Education?
Traffic Education describes the traffic rules and regulations in a clear and
simple way. Have you ever seen an accident on the road? If so, how did they get
hurt? Think about why had the accident happened?
Accident Victms- Age
Age

Cases

Age

Cases

00-05

24

50-55

207

05-10
10-15

58
40

55-60

138

60-65

113

15-20

152

65-70

57

20-25

345

70-75

49

25-30

380

75-80

13

30-35

254

80-85

12

35-40

294

85-90

0

40-45

226

90-95

0

45-50

215

95-100

0

In which group do you find more
cases? Can you think of the reasons.
How many cases are there in the age
group of both 20–25 and 25–30?

Need and significance of Traffic Education
As young people become more independent, they are exposed to increased
risks. Especially teenagers are an important group of road users. Many are unaware
that road incidents are the biggest cause for serious accidents and deaths. It is
necessary to teach all the road safety measures clearly to avoid accidents.
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Hyderabad City

Traffic Chaos
You have to go to school in the morning. If
you are late, you may miss your. You are struck
in a traffic jam. What will you do?
Students, employees, labourers, teachers,
doctors and all are affected by traffic jams. Foot
paths (Side walks) are considered a boon for
pedestrians. But sometimes motorists drive on
these side walks also.
Stray animals, fruit and vegetable sellers,
private vehicles like cars, autorickshaws often
found parking at No Parking Zones are the main
causes for traffic jams. As there is an increase
in population and use of automobiles, there has
been a rapid increase in the volume of traffic
on roads. To avoid accidents, one must know the
prescribed rules and regulations.

Accidents: Accused vehicles

Total accidents - 2577
Accidents figures for the year 2012.

Necessity of Driving License
No person shall drive a Motor Vehicle unless
he/ she holds a driving license.

Types of Driving Licenses
1. Learner’s License : This is a temporary
license valid up to 6 months issued to learn
driving motor vehicle.
2. Permanent License : One becomes
eligible for permanent license after one month
from the date of issuing the learner’s license.

Discuss the data relating to the
accidents-accused vehicles in
your classroom?
Which type of vehicles are
accused of more accidents? Can
you think of the reason for this?
What are Traffic Rules and
regulations? Discuss in your
class room.

Documents required for Learner’s License
Residence Proof (attested copy of the following)
Ration Card/ Electricity Bill/ Tax Receipts/ Life Insurance policy/ Voter ID
Card/ Passport/ Adhar Card.
Age Proof attested copies of the following
School Certificate/ Passport/ Birth Certificate/ Adhar Card/ PAN Card of
Income Tax.
Some Important provisions of Law
It is an offence to drive a vehicle without procuring a driving license.
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Age limit for motor vehicle above 50 CC is 18 years.
Age limit for transport vehicles is 25 years.
Forms to be submitted: Form 1, 1A, 2 and 3 are to be submitted with
prescribed details and passport photographs. After verification of the above
documents a learner’s test and colour blindness test will be conducted. A learning
license is issued to the applicant who qualifies in the prescribed tests.
Permanent license: Permanent license will be issued only after having a valid
learner’s license. One should apply for the permanent license after 30 days but
within 180 days from the date of issue of the
Why it is compulsory to have a learner’s license. One more important thing is
that one should be conversant about the traffic
driving license?
rules and regulations.

Driving after a drink – Drunken Drive
Driving after a drink: Twenty eight year old Mukhesh is a party buff and likes
to go out with his friends every weekend. But, of late, he is worried about returning
home after the party. As the very site of the traffic police at the street corners
sends jitters down his spine. This is not the case of just Mukhesh but many liquor
consumers are now thinking twice before going to a party.
How breath analyser works : When a person drinks alcohol, it is absorbed
into the blood and is circulated
through, out the body. As this blood
reaches the lungs, the breath we
exhale carries traces of alcohol
which is measured by the gadget. In a
way, the exhaled breath would contain
alcohol traces along with carbon-dioxide. These machines can pickup
even the slightest traces of alcohol.
Police Officer can not delete the
record in breath analyser even if he
Fig. 24.1 What are the policemen doing?
wants to help the victim.

Punishment for drunken driving
Enable the officials to seize the vehicle of the drunken.
Driver to attend court and pay the penalty imposed.

Cancellation of driving licenses
The Regional Transport Authority can disqualify persons from holding driving
license or revoke the same if the person:
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295

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Is a habitual drunkard.
Is an addict to any narcotic drug
Is using a vehicle in the commission of cognizable offence
Is driving dangerously
Is using the vehicle without registration
Is not giving any information required to the police
Is not shifting the victim of the accident in which his or her vehicle
is involved to the nearest hospital
Does not produce the following certificates on demand by police
- Certificate of Insurance, - Certificate of Registration
- Driving License
- Pollution Certificate

Traffic Signs
1. Mandatory Signs

2. Information signs

3. Cautionary signs

A few signs in each type are given above. With the help of your teacher collect the
remaining signs from RTA office/ Traffic Police and present in the classroom.
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Advice to Drivers
Stick to the left lane and leave the right lane to faster traffic.
Never over take from the left side.
Wear a helmet for a safe journey.
Use only less Carbon monoxide emission vehicles.
Do not use horn unnecessarily.
Heavy vehicle users should always use seat belts.
Do not jump traffic signals.
Keep your vehicle in good condition.
Kumari is a student, completed Intermediate with 95% marks. Her father
wanted to give her a two wheeler as a gift. They went to local RTA office to get
the information regarding registration of vehicle and driving license. As advised
by the authorities, her father admitted her in a motor driving school. By providing
necessary documents which we previously discussed, she got temporary license
first and then a permanent license. The RTA officer explained the process to her
father about how to get the vehicle temporarily registered and then permanently
registered.

Necessity for Registration
No person shall drive any motor vehicle unless it is registered.

How registration is made
Temporary Registration: The following documents are necessary for
registration.
1. Copy of sales certificate
2. Copy of road worthiness certificate
3. Copy of valid insurance certificate
4. Pollution under control certificate
5. Copy of address proof
Permanent Registration: An application for registration of a motor vehicle
shall be made to the registering authority within a period of one month by producing
the certificates which are submitted at the time of temporary registration.

Road Marking Signs
With the help of your teacher
collect the road surface markings
from RTA/ Traffic police and
discuss the uses of various
markings in the classroom.

Road surface markings are used on paved
roads to provide guidance and information to
drivers and pedestrains. Uniformity of the
markings is an important factor in minimizing
confusion and uncertainty.
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297

Division of roads
1. Footpath : It is laid on either side of the road for the use of pedestrians. Its
width is about 2 meters
2. Road divider : The road is divided into two halves with cement slabs
3. Zebra Crossings : Zebra Crossing is the place where the pedestrians cross
the road. These are laid at places where traffic is heavy

Traffic Signals
A traffic light , traffic signal or a stop light is a signatory
device position at a road intersection to indicate when it is safe
to drive through. Follow traffic signals at the junction i.e.
Red- stop before line;
Orange- get ready to go;
Green- move the vehicle.

Road Safety
India has the second largest road network in the world. As the
road users are not aware of the traffic rules, it leads to high toll of the death it
victims.
Slogans
Hurdle of road safety
Live and let live, follow traffic rules
1. Negligence of civilians
Ensure safety on road, follow traffc fules
2. Pathetic conditions of roads
3. Unsafe vehicle design
4. Under implementation of road safety standards
5. Lack of proper enforcement of laws

6. Lack of emergency services.

Rules for pedestrians
1. Walk on the foot path. If foot path is not available and the road is narrow,
walk on the right side of the road watching the oncoming traffic.
2. Must use reflective clothing at night when walking outside built up area.
3. Always carry a torch while walking at night time.
4. Do look for safe place to cross and look left and right and listen for traffic.
5. Let any traffic coming in either direction.
6. Walk briskly straight across the road when it is clear and continue to watch
and listen for walking.
7. Use zebra lines for crossing roads.
8. Don’t use the mobile in any form while walking/ crossing i.e. either listening to songs.
9. Take the help of traffic police while crossing the road.
10. Pedestrains do not walk on roads in inebriated condition.
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Fig. 24.2 : Dangerous to drive with overload

Rules for Motor Cycles
Must hold a valid driving license.
Must have insurance cover before
you drive your motor cycle or moped
on a public road.
Riders should wear properly fitted and
secured helmet.
Carry only pillion passenger, who
must sit on a proper seat.

Key words
1. Vehicle registration
4. Traffic Education

2. Breath analyser
5. Driving licence

3. Mandatory signs

Improve your learning
1. What documents should a driver carry while driving and what skills are needed to
drive safely? (AS1)
2. What will happen if someone jumps the traffic signal? (AS1)
3. Suggest a few steps that are taken in your area for road safety. (AS4)
4. Explain mandatory, caution and information traffic signs with examples? (AS1)
5. Kamala wants to purchase a new vehicle. Explain her what are the steps to be taken
and what documents are to be produced for the registration of a vehicle? (AS1)
6. Ramu wants to interchange his vehicle number to other vehicle. Is it correct or not?
Explain, why? (AS6)
7. Explain the need of road safety (AS1)
8. Read the table of page ‘Accident Victms- Age’ of page 293, identify the age group
for which more number of cases registered and draw a bar graph. (AS3)
9. Read the paras under the title ‘Traffic Chaos’ of page 294 and comment on them.(AS2)

Project
1. Collect the data from the traffic police/ RTA officials who are nearest to you .
Place :
Month :
No. of cases booked :
Driving
Driving
Not having
without Helmet without License registration papers

Not following
traffic rules

No. of accident
accused vehicles

Analyse the data and discuss in your class room regarding traffic situations in your area.
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299

Appendix

World Political Map

This additional information and the maps are to be used wherever
necessary.

300

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Traffic Education

Asia
Political
Map

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301

302

Arctic Ocean

Europe Political
Map

ICELAND

NORWAY

SWEDEN

LANDS
NETHER

Atlantic Ocean

Northern
Sea

LATVIA

ROMANIA

DOVA

HUNGARY

M OL

SLOVOKIA

GA
L

Mediteranean Sea
SWITZERLAND
Africa

UKRAINE

CHECH REP.
AUSTRIA

RUSSIA

BELARUS

POLAND

Y
ITAL

PO
RT
U

Traffic Education

SPAIN

RUSSIA

LITHUANIA

GERMANY
FRANCE

FINLAND
ESTOINA

IRELAND
UNITED
KINGDOM

BELGIUM

Asia

Social Studies

DENMARK

Caspian Sea
Black Sea

BULGARIA
TURKEY

TURKEY
MONTENEGRO

EGYPT
IA

MALI
BURKINA
FASO

GUINEA
LI

BE

RI

A

COAST
IVOIRE
SIERRA
LEONE
GUINEA
BISSAU

NIGERIA

BENIN
TOGO
GHANA
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
GABON

ERITHRIA
DJIBOUTH

SUDAN

CHAD

SOUTH
AL
CENTR EP SUDAN
AN R
AFRIC

ETHIOPIA

A
ND
A
KENYA
UG

DEMOCRATIC REP
CONGO

SO

M

AL

IA

RAWANDA
BURUNDI

TANZANIA
MALAWI

REP. OF
CONGO

NAMIBIA

THE
GAMBIA

ANGOLA

MOZAMBIQUE
ZAMBIA

R

SENEGAL

NIGER

ZIMBABWE
BOTSWANA

The Atlantic Ocean

SCA

N

GA

A
IT

DA

R

LIBIYA

MA

U

ALGERIA

CAMEROON

M

A

MO

WE
S A STE
H A RN
RA

RO

CC

O

TUNISIA

Africa Political Map

SWAZILAND
SOUTH
AFRICA

LESOTHO

The Indian Ocean

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303

304

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Traffic Education

World Outline Map

Free distribution by T.S. Government

305

India Political Map

306

Social Studies

Traffic Education

Telangana Political Map

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307

Key Industries in Telangana
Key Industries in
Adilabad :
● Cement
● Paper
Key Industries in Nizamabad :
● Minerals
● Cement
● Food Processing

Key Industries in Karimnagar :
● Fertilizer
● Power
● Cement
Key Industries in Warangal :
● Minerals ● Food Processing

Key Industries in Medak :
● Chemicals ● Engineering
● Automobiles
Key Industries in Rangareddy :
● IT & BT
● Pharma
● Food Processsing
Key Industries in Mahabubnagar :
● Textiles
● Minerals
● Consumer Products

Key Industries in
Nalgonda :
● Cement
● Pharma

Key Industries in
Khammam :
● Minerals
● Power
● Granite
● Metallurgy
● Paper

Mineral Geographical Distribution and Utilisation in Telangana
Major Mineral

Geographical Distribution

Mineral Based Industry

Amethyst

Mahabubnagar, Ranga Reddy,
Medak, Warangal.
Khammam

Jewellery

Barytes
Fire Clay
Coal

Adilabad
Khammam, Warangal, Adilabad,
Karimnagar.
Khammam
Khammam

Corrundum
Dolomite
Feldspar

Mahabubnagar, Rangareddy,
Khammam
Rangareddy
Warangal, Khammam, Adilabad,
Karimnagar

Fullers Earth
Iron Ore
Hematite
Magnetite
Laterite

Mahabubnagar, Karimnagar,
Medak, Nizamabad
Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Khammam, Adilabad, Karimnagar
Adilabad

Limestone
Manganese
Quartz
Steatite
Stowing Sand
Marble
Limestone slabs
Granite
Building Stones

308

Drilling, Paints, Filler in Tyres, Rubber
Goods, Paper and Chemical
Refractory, Ferro Alloys
Iron and Steel, Thermal Plants, Cement,
Railways, Domestic Fuel
Abrasives, Jewellery
Iron and Steel, Ferro Alloys, Fertilizers, Glass,
Foundry and Cosmetics
Ceramics, Glass, Abrasive, Enamels,
Electrical, Refracories.
Decolourizer of vegetable oils, oil refineries
Steel, Pelltization, Sponge Iron, Pig Iron.

Cement

Cement, Carbide, Iron and Steel, Soda Ash,
Chemical, Sugar, Paper, Fertilizer, Glass
Potassium Permanganate, Ferro Alloys, Iron and
Steel, Batteries, Chemicals, Ceramic, Glass Industry
Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar,
Glass, Foundry, Iron and Steel, Refractory,
Khammam, Nizamabad.
Ceramic, Electrical, Abrasive,Painst, Electronics
Khammam
Paper, Textile, Rubber, Ceramics, Soaps,
Detergents, Fertilizers.
Khammam
Ceramics, Foundary, Refractory
Khammam
Decorative, Flooring, Panels
RangaReddy, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda Flooring Pavements
Warangal, Khammam, Karimngar,Ranga- Cutting and Polishing Industry, Decorative,
reddy, Nalgonda, Medak, Nizamabad
Panels, Monuments, Flooring, Panels
All districts in Telangana
Building Material for construction purposes

Social Studies

Traffic Education

District-Wise Contribution of Service Sector to GSDP (%) 2012-13
at Constant (2004-05) prices
35
30 29
25
20

18

15
6

5

d

Kh
am
ma
m

ba
ila
Ad

Ma
hab
oo
bn
aga
r

Wa
ran
ga
l

Na
lgo
nd
a

ak
ed
M

Ka
rim
na
ga
r

Hy

de

rab

ad
Ra
ng
are
dd
y

0

5

d

6

5

ba

7

ma

7

za

8

8

Ni

10

Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing 71.2 47.5

Telangana State

Nalgonda

Khammam

Warangal

Karimnagar

Adilabad

Nizamabad

Medak

Hyderabad

Sectors

Rangareddy

Districts

Mahabubnagar

District-Wise Number of employed people across sectors in Telangana, 2011-12 (%)

0.1 63.3 51.2 66.3 56.4 65.4 65.9 59.0 55.7

Manufacturing

4.1 8.1 13.1 12.0 24.4

9.3 17.0

7.6

4.8

Mining & quarrying

0.2 0.8

-

0.5 0.1

4.6

1.4

0.2

1.9

-

0.9

Electricity, gas & water supply

0.2 0.2

0.4

0.5 0.1

-

1.6

0.4

1.4

0.5

0.5

12.2 10.8 13.4

5.8 6.7

4.2

4.8

5.9

5.9

8.3

8.0

Trade, hotels & restaurants

4.9 12.5 21.7

5.1 4.6

6.3

7.4

8.6

7.4 10.3

9.0

Transport, storage & communication

2.7 8.4 17.0

4.4 3.0

3.0

4.1

5.6

3.5

5.8

5.7

& business services

1.0 2.1

5.0

0.8 0.1

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.8

1.3

1.2

Community, social &
personal services

3.6 9.2 29.2

7.6 6.9

5.6

7.0

5.8

8.8

7.8

8.6

Construction

7.1 10.3

Financing, insurance, real estate

Source : 68th NSS Employment Survey estimates and Census 2011-12
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