GEOGRAPHY CAPSULE 2016 for SSC CGL, CPO. RAILWAYS etc.
ORIGIN OF EARTH
Nebular Theory
There are many ideas about the formation and evolution
of the Solar System. The accepted idea is that 4.6 billion
years ago, there was a very big cloud of gas in our area of
space, known as a nebula. The Nebula eventually became
so big that gravity pulled all the gas to the center.
Eventually because of all the gas it became so hot there
that some hydrogen atoms fused together to make
helium. As they did this a lot of energy was let out. All
this energy eventually made the Sun. The leftover gas
and dust made the planets, their moons, asteroids and all
other objects in the Solar System. Scientists think now
that solar systems are created out of a huge cloud of gas.
The process by which the solar sytems are created is
called the Nebular Theory.
THE ORIGIN OF EARTH
The formation of Earth occurred as part of the formation
of the Solar System. It started as a large rotating cloud of
dust and gas.
This cloud, the solar nebula, was composed of hydrogen
and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier
elements produced in supernovas. Then, about 4.68×109
years ago, the solar nebula began to contract, rotate and
gain angular momentum.
This may have been triggered by a star in the region
exploding as a supernova, and sending a shock wave
through the solar nebula.
As the cloud rotated, it became a flat disc perpendicular
to its axis of rotation. Most of the mass concentrated in
the middle and began to heat up. Meanwhile, the rest of
the disc began to break up into rings, with gravity
causing matter to condense around dust particles. Small
fragments collided to become larger fragments, including
one collection about 150 million kilometers from the
center: this would become the Earth.

Earth Solar System
Earth solar system consists of :
• The Sun
• The Planets
• Dwarf Planets and countless fragments of left – overs
called asteroids, meteors, comets and satellites of the
planets (Called small solar system Bodies).
Solar System Some Facts
• Biggest Planet
: Jupiter
• Smallest Planet
: Mercury
• Nearest Planet to Sun
: Mercury
• Farthest Planet from Sun
: Neptune
• Nearest Planet to Earth
: Venus
• Brightest Planet
: Venus
• Brightest star after Sun
: Sirius
• Planet with maximum satellites:
Jupiter
• Coldest Planet
: Neptune
• Hottest Planet
: Venus
• Heaviest Planet
: Jupiter
• Red Planet
: Mars
• Biggest Satellite
: Gannymede
• Smallest Satellite
: Deimos
• Blue Planet: Earth
• Morning/Evening Star
: Venus
• Earth's Twin
: Venus
• Green Planet
: Neptune
• Planet with a big red spot
: Jupiter
• Lord of the Heavens
: Jupiter
• Greatest Diurnal Temperature: Mercury

THE LAST 2½ BILLION YEARS OR SO
As soon as the oxygen was produced by photosynthesis it
was taken out again by reacting with other elements
(such as iron).This continued until about 2.1 billion years
ago when the concentration of oxygen increased
markedly. As oxygen levels built up and then . . . . . . The
ozone layer was formed which started to filter out
harmful ultraviolet rays. This allowed the evolution of
new living organisms in the shallow seas.

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Earth Latitude and Longitude
Earth Latitude
• Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator.
Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of
the earth.
• The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North
Pole is 90° N and the South Pole 90° S
• 23½° N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23½° S
represents Tropic of Capricorn.
• 66½° N represents Arctic Circle while 66½° S
represents Antarctic Circle.
• There are total 181 latitudes including the equator.
Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but they are not
equal.
• The circle becomes smaller towards the poles.
Equator is the ‘Greatest Circle’ that can be drawn on
the earth’s surface.
• The distance between any two parallels of latitude is
always equal.
1 degree lat. = 111km.
Earth Longitude
• It is the angular distance measured from die centre
of the earth. On the globe the lines of longitude are
drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the
North Pole to the South Pole through the equator.
They are also called meridians.
• The distance between any two meridians is not
equal.
At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km. At 30°N or S, it is
96.5 km. It goes on decreasing this way until it is
zero at the poles.
• There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime
meridian is a longitude of 00, passing through the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich near London.
• This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the
earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.
• Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180°
meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly
opposite to 0° meridian. Such points are called
Antipodal Points.
• The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each
being 15° or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes /
degree).
Longitude and Time
• Places that are on the same meridian have the same
local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one complete
revolution of 360° in 24 hours, it passes through 15°
in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, hence places
east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time
whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later
and lose time.
• India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has
adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E for

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the standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes
ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
International Date Line
• It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific
Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and
Gilbert Islands. It is a zig-zag line
• Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east
(i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers
crossing it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan)
lose a day.
Important Parallels of Latitude
1. The Tropic of Cancer : It is in the northern
hemisphere at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’N)
from the equator.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn : It is in the southern
hemisphere at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’S)
from the equator.
3. The Arctic Circle : It lies at a distance of 66 1/2°
(66°30’N) north of the equator.
4. The Antarctic Circle : It lies at a distance of 66 1/2°
(66°30’S) south of the equator. There are two solstices
each year, called the Summer Solstice and the Winter
Solstice.
Summer Solstice : The day of 21st June when the sun is
vertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N).
Winter Solstice : The day of 22nd December when the
sun is vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
(23°30’S).
Meridians of Longitude
The semi-circles running from pole to pole or from north
to south are known as meridians of longitude and
distance between them is measured in degrees of
longitude. Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian with a
value of 0° longitude serves as a common base for
numbering meridians of longitude lying on either side of
it — east as well as west. There are 360 meridians
including Prime Meridian. Each degree of a longitude is
divided into sixty equal parts, each part is called a
minute. Each minute is again divided into sixty equal
parts, each part being called a second.
Local Time : Local time of any place is 12 noon when the
sun is exactly overhead. It will vary from the Greenwich
time at the rate of four minutes for each degree of
longitude.
Greenwich Mean Time : The time at 0° longitude is
called Greenwich Mean Time. It is based on local time of
the meridian passing through Greenwich near London.
Indian Standard Time : It is fixed on the mean of 82
1/2°E Meridian, a place near Allahabad. It is 5 1/2hours
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.

Facts about earth
• The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all
planets.
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• Earth Circumference: 40,232 Kilometers.
• Earth Area: 510 million Square Kilometers
• Average distance from sun: 149 million Kilometers.
• Earth Perihelion: Nearest position of earth to sun. The
earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a
distance of about 147 million-Kilometers.
• Aphelion: Farthest position of earth from sun. The
earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth is at
a distance of 152 million Kilometers.
• The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate
ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at the
poles with a slight bulge at the centre).
Types of Earth Movements:
1. Rotation or daily movement.
2. Revolution or annual movement.
Earth Rotation
• Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hrs,
56 min and 40.91 sec.
• Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h
and it decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.
Earth’s rotation results in
i. Causation of days and nights;
ii. A difference of one hour between two meridians which
are 15° apart;
iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents;
Rise and fall of tides everyday.
iv. The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21, while
shortest day is on 22 Dec (Vice-versa in S.Hemisphere).
• Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.
Earth Revolution
• It is earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the sun.
Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79 Kilometers/s.
• Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It results
in one extra day every fourth year.
• Revolution of the earth results in
i. Change of seasons
ii. Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different
times of the year
iii. Shifting of wind belts
iv. Determination of latitudes.

A solar eclipse is a type of eclipse that occurs when
theMoon passes between the Sun and Earth, and the
Moon fully or partially blocks ("occults") the Sun. This
can happen only at new moon
INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The layering of Earth is categorized as Lithosphere,
Asthenosphere, Upper mantle, Lower mantle, Outer core,
and the Inner core.
The earth's interior has three different layers; they are
(i) the crust (ii) mantle and (iii) the core.
a) Earth's Crust:
All of the Earth's landforms (mountains, plains, and
plateaus) are contained within it, along with the oceans,
seas, lakes and rivers. There are two different types of
crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean basins
and thicker continental crust that underlies the
continents. These two different types of crust are made
up of different types of rock. The boundary between the
crust and the mantle is Mohorovicic Discontinuity.
b) Earth's Mantle: It is the thick, dense rocky matter
that surrounds the core with a radius of about 2885 km.
The mantle covers the majority of the Earth's volume.
This is basically composed of silicate rock rich in iron
and magnesium. This layer is separated from the core by
Gutenberg-Wiechert Discontinuity. The outer and the
inner mantle are separated by another discontinuity
named Repetti discontinuity.
c) Earth's Core: Earth's Core is thought to be composed
mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. The core is earth's
source of internal heat because it contains radioactive
materials which release heat as they break down into
more stable substances. The core is divided into two
different zones. The outer core is a liquid because the
temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel
alloy. However, the inner core is a solid even though its
temperature is higher than the outer core. Here,
tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of the
overlying rocks is strong enough to crowd the atoms
tightly together and prevents changing it to the liquid
state.

EARTHQUAKES
a) An earthquake is the sudden release of strain energy
in the Earth's crust resulting in waves of shaking that
Earth Eclipses
radiate outwards from the earthquake source.
Earth Lunar Eclipse
b) The point at the surface directly above the focus is
· When earth comes between sun and moon.
called the earthquake epicentre.
· Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not
c) When the earth moves in an earthquake, it can cause
occur on every full moon day because the moon is so
waves in the ocean, and if a wave grows large
small and the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5° with
enough, it's called a "tsunami".
respect to the plane of the earth’s orbit. It is for this
e) Earthquakes are measured with a seismometer.
reason that eclipses do not occur every month.
The magnitude of an earthquake, and the intensity of
· This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the
shaking, is measured on a numerical scale. On the scale, 3
other colors present in sunlight in greater amounts than
or less is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 7 (or more)
it does red.
causes damage over a wide area. The point of origin of
Earth Solar Eclipse
earthquake is called Seismic focus. The point on the
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earth’s surface vertically above the earth’s surface is
called Epicentre.
f) The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by
Seismograph. The magnitude of waves is measured
on Richter’s scale. For measurement of the intensity
of the earthquake (damage caused), the Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale is used.
Distribution of Earthquakes
a) Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes
known as the Ring of Fire. 68 per cent of the
volcanoes are experienced in this region.
b) From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea)
through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies. 21
per cent earthquakes are experienced in the region.
c) Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11
percent of the earthquakes.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
There are two types of seismic waves, body wave and
surface waves.
• Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.
They follow ray paths refracted by the varying density
and stiffness of the Earth's interior which in turn, vary
according to temperature, composition, and phase.
Body waves are divided as
P-WAVES (Primary Waves) are compression waves that
are longitudinal in nature. These waves can travel
through any type of material, and can travel at nearly
twice the speed of S waves.
S-WAVES (Secondary Waves) are shear waves that are
transverse in nature. These waves typically follow P
waves during an earthquake and displace the ground
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S waves
can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and
gases) do not support shear stresses. S waves are slower
than P waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of
that of P waves in any given material.
• Surface waves are analogous to water waves and travel
along the Earth's surface. They travel slower than body
waves.
There are two types of surface waves:
Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface
waves that travel as ripples with motions that are similar
to those of waves on the surface of water.
Love waves are surface waves that cause circular
shearing of the ground. They are named after A.E.H.
Love, a British mathematician who created a
mathematical model of the waves in 1911. They usually
travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of
the S wave velocity, and have the largest amplitude.
The asthenosphere separates the strong, solid rock of
the uppermost mantle and crust above from the
remainder of the strong, solid mantle below. The
combination of uppermost mantle and crust above the
asthenosphere is called the lithosphere. The lithosphere

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is free to move (glide) over the weak asthenosphere. The
tectonic plates are, in fact, lithospheric plates.
Types of Waves Earthquakes
1. Primary Waves (P-Waves):
a) Travel from the point of happening by the
displacement of surrounding particles.
b) They are transmitted through solids, liquids and
gases.
c) Travels fastest.
2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves):
 Travels through solids only.
 Thus they cannot pass through core.
3. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L-Waves):
a) Travels on earth’s surface and causes maximum
destruction.
b) They are recorded after the P and S waves.
VOLCANOES
A volcano is generally a conical shaped hill or mountain
built by accumulations of lava flows, and volcanic ash.
About 95% of active volcanoes occur at the plate
subduction zones and at the mid-oceanic ridges.
Subduction is the process that takes place at convergent
boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under
another tectonic plate and sinks into the mantle as the
plates converge. Regions where this process occurs are
known as sub-duction zones. The other 5% occur in
areas associated with lithospheric hot spots. It is
believed that hot spots are caused by plumes of rising
magma that have their origin within the asthenosphere.

Types of Volcanoes
Geologists have classified five different types of
volcanoes. This classification is based on the geomorphic
form, magma chemistry, and the explosiveness of the
eruption. The least explosive type of volcano is called a

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basalt plateau. These volcanoes produce a very fluid
basaltic magma with horizontal flows. Deposits of these
volcanoes can be as thick as 1800 meters. Large basalt
plateaus are found in the Columbia River Plateau,
western India, northern Australia, Iceland, Brazil,
Argentina, and Antarctica. Some basaltic magmas can
produce very large slightly sloping volcanoes, 6 to 12°,
that have gently flowing magmas called shield volcanoes
Shield volcanoes can be up to 9000 meters tall. The
volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are typical of this type.
A cinder cone is a small volcano, between 100 and 400
meters tall, made up of exploded rock blasted out of a
central vent at a high velocity. These volcanoes develop
from magma of basaltic to intermediate composition.
They form when large amounts of gas accumulate within
rising magma. Examples of cider cones include Little
Lake Volcano in California and Paricuti Volcano in
Mexico.
Composite volcanoes are made from alternate layers of
lava flows and exploded rock. Their height ranges from
100 to 3500 meters tall. The chemistry of the magma of
these volcanoes is quite variable ranging from basalt to
granite.
Magmas that are more granitic tend to be very explosive
because of their relatively higher water content. Water at
high temperatures and pressures is extremely volatile.
Examples of composite volcanoes include Italy's
Vesuvius, Japan's Mount Fuji, and Washington State's
Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens.
The most explosive type of volcano is the caldera.

They belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to
denudation and uplift; many faults were formed; occur
as relict mountains today. E.g. Pennines (Europe),
Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India).
Relict Mountains: Sometimes, the mountains are carved
out as a result of erosion of plateaus & high planes by
various agents of erosion. E.g., Highlands of Scotland,
Sierras of Spain, Catskill mountains of New York and
Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal of India.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is
composed of eight elements like oxygen, silicon,
aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and
magnesium, and the rest is constituted by titanium,
hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon,
nickel and other.
1) The three types of rocks are
a) Igneous rocks (formed directly from liquid rock),
b) Metamorphic rocks (formed by direct alteration of
existing rocks), and
c) Sedimentary rocks (formed by eroded materials from
other rocks).

a)Igneous Rocks
1) Igneous rocks solidify from a liquid magma as it cools.
When magma cools rapidly, mineral crystals do not have
time to grow very large. On the other hand when magma
cools slowly crystals grow to several millimeters or more
in size.
Granite and basalt are the examples of IR. Igneous rocks
Classification on the basis of Periodicity of Eruptions:
are classified as
Active Volcano:
a) Extrusive Rocks
Volcanoes which erupt periodically. E.g. Maona Loa in
Extrusive igneous rocks solidify from molten material
Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, Stromboli in
that flows over the earth’s surface (lava).
Mediterranean Sea, etc.
Common extrusive rocks are
Dormant Volcano:
i) basalt,
Volcanoes which has been quiet for a long time but in
ii) andesite, and
which there is a possibility of eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in
iii) rhyolite.
Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in
b) Intrusive Rocks
Andamans, etc.
Intrusive rocks form from molten material (magma) that
Distribution of Volcanoes in the World
flows and solidifies underground.
About 15% of world’s active volcanoes are found along
Common rock types within the intrusive category are
the ‘constructive or divergent’ plate margins, whereas
granite and diorite.
80% volcanoes are associated with the ‘destructive or
ii. Sedimentary Rocks
convergent’ plate boundaries.
These are types of rocks created from deposition of
layers upon layers of sediments over time. These types of
Earth Mountains
rocks are formed on the Earth's surface, as well as
underwater.
Types of Mountains
Examples – Sandstone, limestone, stromatolites , oil
Fold Mountains of the World: They are formed when
shale and coal shale, gypsum, shale, and conglomerate.
the rocks of the crust of the earth folded under stress,
iii. Metamorphic Rocks
mainly by forces of compression (as a result of series of
Metamorphic rocks are any rock type that has been
earthquakes). E.g. – All big Mountain Systems:
altered by heat, pressure, and/or the chemical action of
Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas, etc.
fluids and gases. When igneous rocks, or sedimentary
Old Mountains
rocks, or even metamorphic rocks get buried very deep
under the earth's surface, a process that takes millions of
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years, they get changed into something else by the
enormous pressure and heat inside the earth.
“Some examples of metamorphic rocks are:
• Limestone being changed into marble
• Shale turning into slate
• Granite being changed into gneiss
• Sandstone turning into quartzite
ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope that surrounds
the earth and extends thousands of kilometers above the
earth's surface. Much of the life on the earth exists
because of the atmosphere otherwise the earth would
have been barren. Nitrogen and Oxygen comprise 99% of
the total volume of the atmosphere.
Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of almost concentric layers of
air with varying density and temperature.
a) Troposphere:
• Lowest layer of the atmosphere.
• The height of troposphere is 16 km thick over the
equator and 10 km thick at the poles.
• All weather phenomena are confined to troposphere
(e.g. fog, cloud, frost, rainfall, storms, etc.)
• Temperature decreases with height in this layer
roughly at the rate of 6.5° per 1000 metres, which is
called normal lapse rate.
• Upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause
which is about 1.5 km.
b) Stratosphere:
• The stratosphere is more or less devoid of major
weather phenomenon but there is circulation of
feeble winds and cirrus cloud in the lower
stratosphere.
• Jet aircrafts fly through the lower stratosphere
because it provides perfect flying conditions.
• Ozone layer lies within the stratosphere mostly at
the altitude of 15 to 35 km above earth's surface.
• Ozone layer acts as a protective cover as it absorbs
ultra-voilet rays of solar radiation.
• Depletion of ozone may result in rise of temperature
of ground surface and lower atmosphere.
• Temperature rises from -60°C at the base of the
stratosphere to its upper boundary as it absorbs
ultra-voilet rays.
• Upper limit of the Stratosphere is called
stratopause.
c) Mesosphere
• Mesosphere extends to the height of 50-90 km.
• Temperature decreases with height. It reaches a
minimum of -80°C at an altitude of 80-90 km
• The upper limit is called mesopause.
d) Thermosphere
• It lies at 80 km to 640 km above the earth's surface.
• It is also known as ionosphere.
• Temperature increases rapidly with increasing height.

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• It is an electrically charged layer. This layer is produced
due to interaction of solar radiation and the chemicals
present, thus disappears with the sunset.
• There are a number of layers in thermosphere e.g. Dlayer, E-layer, F-layer and G-layer.
• Radio waves transmitted from earth are reflected back
to the earth by these layers.
e) Exosphere
• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere
extending beyond the ionosphere.
• The density is very low and temperature becomes
5568°C.
• This layer merges with the outer space.
About Ionosphere
At heights of 80 km (50 miles), the gas is so thin that free
electrons can exist for short periods of time before they
are captured by a nearby positive ion. This portion of the
atmosphere is ionized and contains plasma which is
referred to as the ionosphere. The Ultraviolet (UV), XRay and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation ionizes
the atmosphere. The ionosphere is broken down into the
D, E and F regions.
PRESSURE AND WIND BELTS
Air pressure is thus defined as total weight of a mass of
column of air above per unit area at sea level. The
amount of pressure exerted by air at a particular point is
determined by temperature and density which is
measured as a force per unit area.
• Aneroid Barometer-It is the most common type
barometer used in homes.

Pressure Belts of the World
a) Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:
At the Equator heated air rises leaving a low-pressure
area at the surface. This low pressure area is known as
equatorial low pressure. The zone shifts along with the
northward or southward movement of sun during
summer solstice and winter solstice respectively. The
pressure belt is thermally induced because the ground
surface gets heated during the day. Thus warm air
expands, rises up and creates low pressure.
b) Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt:
The warm air risen up at the equator due to heating
reaches the troposphere and bend towards the pole. Due
to coriolis force the air descends at 30-35º latitude thus
creates the belt of sub-tropical high pressure. The
pressure belt is dynamically induced as it owes its origin
to the rotation of the earth and sinking and settling of
winds. This zone is characterized by anticyclonic
conditions which cause atmospheric stability and aridity.
c) Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt:
This belt is located between 60-65 degrees latitudes in
both the hemisphere. This pressure belt is also
dynamically induced. The belt is more developed and
regular in the southern hemisphere than the northern
due to over dominance of water in the former.
d) Polar High Pressure Belt:
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High pressure persists at the pole due to low
temperature. Thus the Polar High Pressure Belt is
thermally induced as well as dynamically induced as the
rotation of earth also plays a minor role.
Coriolis Force
The rotation of the Earth creates force, termed Coriolis
force, which acts upon wind. Instead of wind blowing
directly from high to low pressure, the rotation of the
Earth causes wind to be deflected off course. In the
Northern Hemisphere, wind is deflected to the right of
its path, while in the Southern Hemisphere it is deflected
to the left. Coriolis force is absent at the equator, and its
strength increases as one approaches either pole.
Furthermore, an increase in wind speed also results in a
stronger Coriolis force, and thus in greater deflection of
the wind.
Winds
When the movement of the air in the atmosphere is in a
horizontal direction over the surface of the earth, it is
known as the wind. Movement of the wind is directly
controlled by pressure. Horizontally, at the Earth's
surface wind always blows from areas of high pressure
to areas of low pressure usually at speeds determined by
the rate of air pressure change between pressure
centres.
I. Planetary winds:

Planetary Winds
Trade Winds
Westerlies
Polar Winds

Planetary winds are major component of the general
global circulation of air. These are known as planetary
winds because of their prevalence in the global scale
throughout the year. Planetary winds occur due to
temperature and pressure variance throughout the
world.

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(c) Polar Wind
The winds blowing in the Arctic and the Antarctic
latitudes are known as the Polar Winds. They have been
termed the 'Polar Easterlies', as they blow from the
Polar High Pressure belt towards the Sub-Polar LowPressure Belts. In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow in
general from the north-east, and are called the NorthEast Polar Winds; and in the Southern Hemisphere, they
blow from the south-east and are called the South- East
Polar Winds. As these winds blow from the ice-capped
landmass, they are extremely cold.
They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere than
in the Northern Hemisphere.
II. Periodic Winds:
Land and sea breezes and monsoon winds are winds of a
periodic type. Land and sea breezes occur daily, whereas
the occurrence of monsoon winds is seasonal. Following
are periodic winds:
(a) Monsoon winds
(b) Land and Sea Breeze
(c) Mountain and Valley Breeze
(a) Monsoon Winds
Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that
predictably change direction with the passing of the
seasons. Like land and sea breezes, these wind systems
are created by the temperature contrasts that exist
between the surfaces of land and ocean.

(b) Land and Sea Breezes:
A land breeze is created when the land is cooler than
the water such as at night and the surface winds have to
be very light. When this happens the air over the water
slowly begins to rise, as the air begins to rise, the air over
the surface of the ocean has to be replaced, this is done
by drawing the air from the land over the water, thus
creating a sea breeze.
A sea breeze is created when the surface of the land is
heated sufficiently to start rising of the air. As air rises, it
is replaced by air from the sea; you have now created a
sea breeze. Sea breezes tend to be much stronger and
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The planetary winds are discussed below:
(a) Trade wind
Winds blowing from the Subtropical High Pressure Belt
or horse latitudes towards the Equatorial Low Pressure
Belt or the ITCZ are the
trade winds. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade
winds blow from the northeast and are known as the
Northeast Trade Winds; in the Southern Hemisphere,
the winds blow from the southeast and are called the
Southeast Trade Winds.

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(b) Westerly Wind
The Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle
latitudes between 35º and 65º latitude, blowing from the
high pressure area in the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt
i.e. horse latitudes towards the sub polar low pressure
belt. The winds are predominantly from the south-west
to north-east in the Northern Hemisphere and from the
north-west to south-east in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Westerlies are strongest in the winter season and
times when the pressure is lower over the poles, while
they are weakest in the summer season and when
pressures are higher over the poles. The Westerlies are
particularly strong, especially in the Southern
Hemisphere, as there is less land in the middle latitudes
to obstruct the flow.

can produce gusty winds as the sun can heat the land to
very warm temperatures, thereby creating a significant
temperature contrast to the water.
(c) Mountain and Valley winds:
Mountain-valley breezes are formed by the daily
difference of the thermo effects between peaks and
valleys. In daytime, the mountainside is directly heated
by the sun, the temperature is higher, air expands, air
pressure reduces, and therefore air will rise up the
mountainside from the valley and generate a valley
breeze.
III. Local Winds
These local winds blow in the various region of the
world.
Hot Winds
Sirocco - Sahara Desert
Leveche - Spain
Khamsin - Egypt
Harmattan - Sahara Desert
Santa Ana - USA
Zonda - Argentina
Brick fielder - Australia
Cold Winds
Mistral - Spain and France
Bora - Adriatic coast
Pampero - Argentina
Buran - Siberia

CYCLONES
Cyclones are well developed low-pressure systems
surrounded by closed isobars having increasing pressure
outside and closed air circulation towards the centre
such that the air blows inward in anticlockwise direction
in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
southern hemisphere.
A. Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are intense cyclonic storms that
develop over the warm oceans of the tropics. Surface
atmospheric pressure in the centre of tropical cyclones
tends to be extremely low.
The main characteristics of tropical cyclones are:• Have winds that exceed 34 knots (39 miles/hr)
• Blow clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and
• Counter-clockwise about their centres in the Northern
Hemisphere
This is one of the most devastating natural calamities.
They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean,
Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-Willies in the
Western Australia.
B. Temperate cyclones
The systems developing in the mid and high latitude,
beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or
temperate cyclones.
Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front. Two
air masses of contrasting physical properties: one air
mass is polar in character and is cold, denser and northeasterly in direction while the other air mass is tropical
in origin and is warm, moist, lighter and south westerly
in direction.
An anticyclone is a region of high atmospheric pressure
related to the surrounding air, generally thousands of
kilometres in diameter and also known as a high or
high-pressure system. Winds in an anticyclone form a
clockwise out-spiral in the Northern Hemisphere;
whereas they form an anti-clockwise out-spiral in the
Southern Hemisphere.

JET-STREAMS
The JET STREAMS located in the upper troposphere (9 14 km) are bands of high speed winds (95-190 km/hr).
The term was introduced in 1947 by Carl Gustaf Rossby.

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Average speed is very high with a lower limit of about
120 Kms in
winter and 50 km per hours in summer. The two most
important types of jet streams are the Polar Jet Streams
and the Subtropical Jet Streams.

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OCEANOGRAPHY
The study of sea floor by echo method of sound waves
reveals that the sea floor is not a flat area. It consists of
mountains, plateaus, plains and trenches etc. Some
major submarine features are described below.

a) Continental Shelf
1) The portion of the land which is submerged under
sea water is continental shelf.
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2) The continental shelf is shallow and its depth is not
more than 200 metres.
3) In all about 7.5 percent of total area of the oceans is
covered by the continental shelves.
The shelves are of great use to man because:
1. Marine food comes almost entirely from them.
2. About 20 percent of oil and gas of the world is
extracted from them.
3. They are the sites of productive fishing grounds.
b) Continental Slope
It is an area of steep slope extending just after the
continental shelf up to a considerable depth from where
a gentle sea plain takes its form. The extent of the slope
area is usually between 200-2000 m. But sometimes it
may extend to 3660 metres from the mean sea level. The
continental slope along many coasts of the world is
followed by deep canyon like trenches terminating as fan
shaped deposits at the base. Continental slope covers 8.5
percent of the total ocean area.
c) Continental Rise
1) The gently sloping surface at the base of the
continental slope is called continental rise.
2) It may extend to hundreds of km into the deep ocean
basin.
d) Deep Ocean Basins
It is the portion of sea floor that lies between the
continental margin and the oceanic ridge system. It
contains deep-ocean trenches, abyssal plains, and broad
volcanic peaks called seamounts.
I. Deep-Ocean Trenches:
a) These are long, narrow features that form the deepest
parts of the ocean.
b) Most trenches are located in the Pacific Ocean.
c) They may reach 10,000 m deep
d) (Mariana trench is 11,000 m below sea level in PO ).
II. Abyssal Plains:
These are the most level places on Earth. The abyssal
plains may have less than 3 m of relief over a distance
that may exceed 1300 km. Scientists determined that
abyssal plains low relief is due to the fact that thick
accumulations of sediment, transported by turbidity
currents, have buried rugged ocean floor.
III. Seamounts:
It is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at least 1000 m
(3300 ft) above the deep-ocean floor.
They are more extensive in the Pacific Ocean, where
subduction zones are common. These undersea
volcanoes form near oceanic ridges (regions of seafloor
spreading). Some of these volcanoes may emerge as an
island.

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e) Submarine Canyons
These are depressions with walls of steep slopes and
have a V shape. They exist on the continental slopes and
the shelves. They are found to have a length of 16 km at
the maximum.

OCEAN CURRENTS
Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that
circulate in regular patterns around the oceans. Those
that flow from equatorial regions polewards have a
higher surface temperature and are warm currents.
Those that flow from polar regions equatorwards have a
lower surface temperature and are cold currents.
Factors lead to OCEAN CURRENT
1. The planetary winds.
Between the equator and the tropics blow the Trade
Winds which move equatorial waters polewards and
westwards and warm the eastern coasts of continents. In
the temperate latitude blow the Westerlies. Though they
are less reliable than the Trade Winds, they result in a
north-easterly flow of water in the northern hemisphere.
The strongest evidence of prevailing winds on current
flows is seen in the North Indian Ocean. Here the
direction of the currents changes completely with the
direction of the monsoon winds which come from the
north-east in winter and south-west in summer.
2. Temperatures.
There is much difference in the temperature of ocean
waters at the equator and at the poles. As warm water is
lighter and rises, and cold water is denser and sinks,
warm equatorial waters move slowly along the surface
polewards, while the heavier cold waters of the Polar
Regions creep slowly along the bottom of the sea
equatorwards.
3. Salinity.
The salinity of ocean water varies from place to place.
Water of high salinity are denser than waters of low
salinity. Hence waters of low salinity flow on the surface
of waters of high salinity while waters of high salinity
flow at the bottom towards waters of low salinity.
4. The earth’s rotation.
The earth’s rotation deflects freely moving objects,
including ocean currents, to the right. In the northern
hemisphere this is a clockwise direction (e.g. the
circulation of the Gulf Stream Drift and the Canaries

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Current). In the southern hemisphere it is an anticlockwise direction (e.g. the Brazilian Current and the
West Wind Drift).
5. Land.
A land mass always obstructs and diverts a current. For
instance, the tip of southern Chile diverts part of the
West Wind Drift northwards as the Peruvian Current.
THE CIRCULATION (THE ATLANTIC OCEAN)
At the ‘shoulder’ of north-east Brazil, the protruding
lands mass splits the South Equatorial Current into the
Cayenne Current which flows along the Guiana coast,
and the Brazilian Current which flows southwards
along the east coast of Brazil.
Part of the current enters the Gulf of Mexico and emerges
from the Florida Strait between Florida and Cuba as the
Florida Current. The rest of the equatorial water flows
northwards east of the Antilles to join the Gulf Stream
off the south-eastern U.S.A. The Gulf Stream Drift is one
of the strongest ocean currents & hugs the coast of
America as far as Cape Hatteras (latitude 350N), where it
is deflected eastwards under the combined influence of
the Westerlies and the rotation of the earth. It reaches
Europe as the North Atlantic Drift.
The cold Labrador Current drift southeastwards
between West Greenland and Baffin Island to meet the
warm Gulf Stream off Newfoundland. On reaching the
west coast of Africa the current is diverted northwards
as the cold Benguela Current (the counterpart of the
Canaries Current).
THE CIRUCLATION (PACIFIC OCEAN)
The North- East Trade Winds blow the North Equatorial
Current off the coasts of the Philippines and Formosa
into the East China Sea as the Kuroshio or Japan current.
The cold Bering Current or Alaskan Current creeps
southwards from the narrow Bering Strait and is joined
by Okhotsk Current to meet the warm Japan Current as
the Oyashio, off Hokkaido. The South Equatorial
Current, driven by the South-East Trade winds, flows
southwards along the coast of Queensland as the East
Australian Current. Obstructed by the tip of southern
Chile, the current turns northwards along the western
coast of South America as the cold Humboldt or
Peruvian
Current.

to October, when the dominant wind is the South-West
Monsoon, the currents are blown from a south-westerly
direction as the South- West Monsoon Drift. This is
reversed in winter; Monsoon blows the currents from
the north-east as the North-East Monsoon Drift. The
currents of the North Indian Ocean, demonstrate most
convincingly the dominant effects of winds on the
circulation of ocean currents.
OCEANS
Arctic Ocean-- The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the
world's five oceans. The Northwest Passage (US and
Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia)
are two important seasonal waterways.
It is a body of water between Europe, Asia, and North
America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle.
Lowest point: Fram Basin
Major chokepoint is the Southern Chukchi Sea
Ports and harbors: Churchill (Canada), Murmansk
(Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US)
Atlantic Ocean-- The Atlantic Ocean is the second
largest of the world's five oceans. The Kiel Canal
(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus
(Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the
Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important
strategic access waterways.
It is a body of water between Africa, Europe, the
Southern Ocean, and the Western Hemisphere. It
includes includes Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea,
part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean
Sea, and other tributary water bodies.
Lowest point:Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico
Trench
Major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of
Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals.
The Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North
Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean. Kiel Canal and
Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways.
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's five
oceans. Four critically important access waterways are
the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab-el Mandeb (Djibouti-Yemen),
Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca
(Indonesia-Malaysia).
It is a body of water between Africa, the Southern Ocean,
Asia, and Australia. It includes Andaman Sea, Arabian
Sea, Bay of Bengal, Flores Sea, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman,
Java Sea, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, Timor Sea, and other
tributary water bodies.

THE INDIAN OCEAN CIRCULATION
The currents of South Indian Ocean form a circuit. The
Equatorial Current, turning southwards past Madagascar
as the Agulhas or Mozambique Current merges with the
West Wind Drift, flowing eastwards and turns equatorwards as the West Australian Current. In the North
Lowest point: Java Trench
Indian Ocean, there is a complete reversal of the
Major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of
direction of currents between summer and winter, due
Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez
to the changes of monsoon winds. In summer from June
Canal, and the Lombok Strait.
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Ports and harbors-- Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban
(South Africa), Jakarta (Indonesia), Melbourne
(Australia), Richards Bay (South Africa).
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five oceans.
Strategically important access waterways include the La
Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and
Torres Straits.
It is body of water between the Southern Ocean, Asia,
Australia, and the Western Hemisphere. It includes Bali
Sea, Bering Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Gulf of Alaska,
Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Tasman Sea,
and other tributary water bodies.
Lowest point: Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.
The major chokepoints are the Bering Strait, Panama
Canal, Luzon Strait, and the Singapore Strait; the Equator
divides the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific Ocean
and the South Pacific Ocean.
Ports and harbors: Bangkok (Thailand), Los Angeles
(US), Manila (Philippines), Pusan (South Korea), San
Francisco (US), Seattle (US), Shanghai (China), Singapore,
Sydney (Australia), Vladivostok (Russia).
SOUTHERN OCEAN--The Southern Ocean is the fourth
largest of the world's five oceans. It is a body of water
between 60 degrees south latitude and Antarctica. It
includes Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, part of the
Drake Passage, Ross Sea, a small part of the Scotia Sea,
Weddell Sea, and other tributary water bodies.

two tides are experienced twice at every place on the
earth's water surface within 24 hours.
Due to the cyclic rotation of the earth and moon, the tidal
cycle is 24 hours and 52 minutes long.
Causes of Tides
• Gravitational attraction between moon and the earth.
• Gravitational attraction between sun and the earth.
• Attraction force of the earth towards earth centre.
• Moon is mainly responsible for the tides.
Types of Tides
• Semi diurnal tides - Recur at the intervals of 12½
hours.
• Diurnal Tides - Recur at the intervals of 24½ hours.
• Spring Tides - once a fortnight, due to the revolution of
the moon and its declination.
• Neap tides - Once a fortnight due to the revolution and
declination of moon.
• Monthly tides - Due to the revolution of the moon and
its position at Perigee and Apogee.
SPRING TIDES
Spring tides are especially strong tides or high tides.
They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in
a line. The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun
both contribute to the tides. Spring tides occur during
the full moon and the new moon.

Lowest point: southern end of the South Sandwich
Trench.
The major chokepoint is the Drake Passage between
South America and Antarctica.
Ports and harbors: McMurdo, Palmer, and offshore
anchorages in Antarctica.
TIDES
The tide is the periodic rise and fall of the sea levels
caused by the combined effects of the gravitational
forces exerted by the Moon and Sun and rotation of the
earth. Most places in the ocean usually experience two
high tides and two low tides each day (semidiurnal tide),
but some locations experience only one high and one low
tide each day (diurnal tide). The times and amplitude of
the tides at the coast are influenced by the alignment of
the Sun and Moon, by the depth of the ocean, and by the
shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry.
When the moon exerts gravitational force on the earth
the tidal bulge moves out and causes high tide.
Simultaneously on the side
opposite to that place on the earth i.e. just at 180° to it,
also experiences the tidal bulge due to reactionary force
(centrifugal) of the gravitational (centripetal) force. Thus
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NEAP TIDES
Neap tides are especially weak tides. They occur when
the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are
perpendicular to one another (with respect to the Earth).
Neap tides occur during quarter moons.
The Bay of Fundy between Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick in Canada experiences the world's greatest
tidal range of 50 feet (15.25 meters)
MOUNTAINS OF INDIA
The Himalayas
Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest
fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly
sedimentary rocks. They stretch from the Indus River in
the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The
Eastern Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills,
Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills-are also
known as Purvanchal.
The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is
the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high
ranges of Central Asia.
Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each
with separate features.
THE GREAT HIMALAYAS OR THE HIMADRI
There are few passes and almost all of them have a
height above 4,500 m. They include Shipki La and Bara
Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in
Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand,
and Jelep La and Nathu La in Sikkim.
Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the
world’s highest peaks are here :
Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha
or Chomo Langma)
Mt Kanchenjunqa
Mt Makalu
Mt Dhaulaqiri
Mt Cho Oyu
Mt Nanga Parbat
Mt Annapurna
Mt Nando Devi

8848 m (in Nepal)
8598 m (in India)
8481 m (in Nepal)
81 72 m (in Nepal)
8153m (in Nepal)
8126m (in India)
8078 m (in Nepal)
7817 m (in India)

LESSER HIMALAYAS OR THE HIMACHAL
Average height of mountains is 3700 – 4500 m.
Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction
(mountains rising to 5000 m and the valleys touching
1000 m).
Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag
Tibba, Mussoorie.
Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks
Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).
Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser
Himalayas and the plains. It is the newest range.

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TRANS – HIMALAYAN ZONE
This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has
some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh,
Zanskar, etc. The highest peak in this region is K2 or
Godwin Austin (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other
high peaks are Hidden Peak (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047
m) and Gasherbrum II (8035 m).
The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which
is more than 72 km long (biggest glacier in the world).
Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important
glaciers in this region.
This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar
Regions.
IMPORTANT FACTS
UP borders the maximum number of States-8
(Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP is Assam, which touches the
border of 7 States.
Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States : Gujarat,
Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripura,
Mizoram.
Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States :
UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.
10 States form the coast of India. They are : Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Orissa and West Bengal.
2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry
are also on the coast.
The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.
THE PLAINS OF INDIA
To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the
Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are
formed by the depositional works of three major river
systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains
of north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmost
portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.
The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga
plains and minimum in the Western Plains.
The plains consist of four divisions:
Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous
Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive
dampness
Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with
calcareous formations called ‘kankar’
Khadar : New alluvium and forms the flood plains along
the river banks.
PENINSULAR PLATEAU OF INDIA
Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea
on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle with
its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western
Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries,
respectively.

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Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the
region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north &
the Deccan Plateau in the south.
Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin,
the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi
plateau.
The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is
made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era
through the fissure eruptions.
ISLANDS OF INDIA
Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline:
Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).
Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Group
Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest
is Middle Andaman. The Andamans are believed to be
extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the
country.
Saddle Peak (737 m) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.
The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest
is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.
Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147
km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.
Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcodam Islands. Barren
is in the process of eruption these days after lying
dormant for 200 years.
The Arabian Sea Group
All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral
islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North :
Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).
DO YOU KNOW?
Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from
Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)
Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little
Andaman.
Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy
Island.
Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India)
from Maldives.
RIVERS OF INDIA
In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups:
Himalayan Rivers--1) Indus 2) Ganga 3) Bhramputra
Peninsular Rivers--1) East flowing 2) West flowing
HIMALAYAN RIVERS OF INDIA
THE INDUS SYSTEM
It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). Rises
in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake. In Jammu and
Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras,

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Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc. Its most
important tributaries, which join Indus at various places,
are: Jhelum, Chenab (1800 km), Ravi, Beas & Satluj.
Sources: Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Ravi from
Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, Beas
from a place near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh and
Satluj from Mansarovar – Rakas lakes in W. Tibet.
THE GANGA SYSTEM
It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand
and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal. The
Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two main rivers
– Bhagirthi and Alaknanda, which combine at Devprayag
to form Ganga.
Sources: Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from
Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from
Uttarakhand).
Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important tributary (on
right bank). It rises at the Yamunotri glacier in
Uttarakhand. It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km and
joins it at Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are
Chambal, Betwa (480 km) and Ken (all from south).
Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are
Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780 km), Gandak (425 km),
Kosi (730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi
is infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the
name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as these cause floods in these
regions. Hooghli is a distributory of Ganga flowing
through Kolkata.
THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM
It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from
Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called Tsangpo, and
enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh) under
the name Dihang. Important Tributaries: Subansiri,
Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta. In Bangladesh,
Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while
Ganga gets the name Padma. Their combined stream is
known as Padma only. Meghna is the most important
distributory before it enters the Bay of Bengal.
The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms
the biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering
an area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
On Brahmaputra is the river island, Majuli in Assam, the
biggest river island in the world.
Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a
distance of 1384 km up to Dibrugarh and serves as an
excellent inland water transport route.
RIVERS OF THE PENINSULA IN INDIA
A. EAST FLOWING RIVERS OF INDIA (OR DELTA
FORMING RIVERS)

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Mahanadi River (858 km) : Rises in Raipur distt. in
Chhatisgarh. Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called
Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest
peninsular river. Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjra,
Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, etc.

Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in
Rajasthan.

Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats near
Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga,
Panchganga, Malprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, etc.

Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called
Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the
head of the Rann of Kuchchh.

Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in
Maharashtra.

Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It
forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi
Falls (289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.
Note: The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar
Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in GujaratMP.
Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of
India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India.
Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India.
Dul Lake is also there in J & K. From Sambhar and
Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is produced. Other
important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru &
Pulicat in Andhra Pradesh.
The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:
Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest
potential of tidal energy generation
Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) :
Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it.
Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Asia’s first
marine biosphere reserve.
Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest peninsular
river (maximum amount of water). Infact, it is the only
peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year.
Known as the ‘Ganga of the South’. It rises from the
Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main tributaries:
Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa.
Swarnarekha River (395 km) and Brahmani (705
km) : Rises from Ranchi Plateau.
B. WEST FLOWING RIVERS IN INDIA
Narmada River (1057 km) : Rises in Amarkantak
Plateau and flows into Gulf of Khambat. It forms the
famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries:
Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul distt in
Maharashtra. Also known as twin or handmaid of
Narmada. Main tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati,
Ganjal, etc.

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IMPORTANT RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS IN INDIA
 Bhakhra Nangal Project: On Satluj in Punjab.
Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind
Sagar Lake
 Mandi Project: On Beas in H.P
 Chambal Valley Project: On Chambal in M.P &
Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam,
Rana Pratap sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar dam
 Damodar Valley Project: On Damodar in Bihar.
 Hirakud: On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest
dam: 4801 m
 Rihand : On Son(river) in Mirzapur. Reservoir is
called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir
 Mayurkashi Project : On Mayurkashi in W.B
 Kakrapara Project : On Tapi in Gujarat
 Nizamsagar Project: On Manjra in A.P
 Nagarjuna Sagar Project : On Krishna in A.P
 Shivasamudram Project: On Cauvery in Karnataka
 Tata Hydel Scheme : On Bhima in Maharashtra
 Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka

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Kundah & Periyar Project In TN
Farakka Project: On Ganga in W.B. Apart from
power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy
navigation
Ukai Project : On Tapti in Gujarat
Salal Project : On Chenab in J & K
Mata Tila Multipurpose Project-On Betwa in U.P &
M.P
Thein Project : On Ravi, Punjab
Pong Dam : On Beas, Punjab

Climate of INDIA
India has tropical monsoon type of climate.
CLIMATE SEASONS IN INDIA
In India, the year can be divided into four seasons,
resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to
the differential heating of land and movement of the
sun’s vertical rays.
The highest temperature experienced in South is in April
while in North it is in May and June. ‘Cherry Blossoms’
are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation
and ‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India, which
are beneficial to mango crops.
The south – west monsoon enters the country in two
currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the
other over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall
over most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar
Desert area).
The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic
region enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets
entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It
strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing
heavies rainfall in Mausryam (Approx. 1400 cm). From
mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s
vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of
Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south
and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is
called north-east monsoon. The withdrawal of
monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset.
It causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some
moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the
phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry when the
entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when
practically the entire country is dry.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
India can be divided into a number of climatic
regions.
Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west
coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam.
Characterised by high temperatures throughout the year.
Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm
annually during May-November.
Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula
region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of

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the Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry
weather throughout winter and early summer and high
temperature (above 18.2 Deg.c); annual rainfall varies
from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.
Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the
rain-shadow belt running southward from Central
Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the
Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is
characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to
80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.
Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in
Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies
from 12-35 Deg. c. The maximum temperature reaches
up to 49 Deg.c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.563.5 cm, is also highly erratic.
Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western
parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by
scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. Rains
are mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly
temperature is uniformly high (about 35c).
Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This
area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical
and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah.
Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely
hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than
254 cm, most of it received during the south west
monsoon season.
Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in
mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more
such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.
Factors Affecting India’s Climate
Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The
Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate
and another half has subtropical climate.
Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal
areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the
north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the
cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian
subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets
comparatively milder winters as compared to Central
Asia.
Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in
the region of north-easterly winds. These winds
originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the
northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow
towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the
Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure
area near the equator.

Soils
1. Alluvial Soil:
In India it covers about 40 per cent of the total land area.
It is very fertile and contributes the largest share of
agricultural wealth. Found mostly in the Northern
Plains, starting from Punjab in the west to West Bengal
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and Assam in the east.
The northern parts and the coastal areas of Gujarat also
have some deposits of alluvial soil.
The fine particles of sand, silt and clay are called
alluvium.
The alluvial soil can be divided into
a. Old alluvium, called bangar
b. New alluvium, called khadar.
Alluvial soil is most suited to irrigation and can produce
bumper crops of rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, tobacco,
cotton, jute, oilseeds, etc.
2. Black Soil:
The black soil is locally called regur, a word derived from
Telugu word ‘reguda’.
It is also called the Black Cotton Soil, as cotton is the
most important crop grown in this soil.
The black soil is mostly found in the Deccan Trap,
covering large areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat and
western Madhya Pradesh.
The black soil is well-known for its capacity to hold
moisture.
Black soil is widely used for producing cotton, wheat,
linseed, millets, tobacco and oilseeds.
3. Red Soil:
The red soil occupies about 10 per cent area of India,
mostly in the south-eastern part of the Peninsular India.
The red soil is found in Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka,
southeast Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Jhark hand.
The red colour is due to the high percentage of iron
contents.
This soil is rich in potash, but poor in lime, phosphate,
nitrogen and humus.
Red soils can give excellent yields of cotton, wheat, rice,
pulses, millets, tobacco, oilseeds, etc.

5. Mountain Soil:
The mountain soil is generally found on the hill slopes
covered with forests.
This soil is also found in the Western and Eastern Ghats
and in some parts of the Peninsular India.
This soil is rich in humus, but poor in potash, phosphorus
and lime.
In the Himalayan region wheat, maize, barley and
temperate fruits are grown on this soil.
This soil is especially suitable for producing plantation
crops, such as tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
6. Desert Soil:
The desert soil is found mostly in the arid and semi-arid
regions, receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall.
Such regions are mostly found in Rajasthan and the
adjoining areas of Haryana and Punjab.
The Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat is an extension of this
region.
The desert soil has sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5
to 10 per cent). Desert soil can produce a variety of
crops, such as wheat, millets, barley, maize, pulses,
cotton, etc.
NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests-In areas over 250 cm
rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Trees are rosewood,
shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests--In areas having
rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and
along the foothills of Himalayas in Shivaliks, Bhabhar and
Tarai. The trees of these forests drop their leaves for
about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer
when sufficient moisture isn’t available.
Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood, etc.
Thorn Forests
In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80 cm. In arid
regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat. Trees
are palm, acacia, etc.

4. Laterite Soil:
The word ‘laterite’ has been derived from a Latin word
meaning ‘brick’.
It is mainly found on the summits of the Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyas, Satpuras and
Malwa plateau.
HILL FORESTS---In hills of Southern India and the
It is well- developed in southern Maharashtra, and parts
Himalayas.
of Orissa, West Bengal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
The type of trees depends upon the height of the
Kerala, Bihar, Assam and Meghalaya.
mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks,
Such climatic conditions promote leaching of soil.
chestnuts and other fruit trees, and chir forests between
Leaching is a process in which heavy rains wash away
1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce
the fertile part of the soil.
between 1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests
The laterite soil is red in colour and composed of little
with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine
clay and much gravel of red sandstones.
forests give way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we
Due to intensive leaching, the laterite soil generally lacks
move up further.
fertility and is of low value for crop production.
But when manured and timely irrigated, the soil is
Tidal or Mangrove Forests
suitable for producing plantation crops like tea, coffee,
Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests. Occur along
rubber, coconut, arecanut, etc.
the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in
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Sunderbans and the Andamans. Most important tree is
Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is
used for construction and building purposes as well as
for making boats.
IMPORTANT POINTS
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests. As
per percentage of forest area to total area, first is
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram. In
Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position,
followed by Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab,
because of the extensive agriculture.

Rubber
Silk

In Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
In Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir,
Andhra Pradesh. In India all 4
varieties of silk are available:
Mulberry, tussar, eri and muga.
Mulberry is the main variety, while
tussar is mainly found in Bihar.
In Gujaral, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka

Tobacco

BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA
In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere
reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 14 biosphere
reserves have been set up in the country.
NATIONAL PARKS AND WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
There are 96 National Parks and 510 Wildlife
Sanctuaries in India.
Madhya Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have
the maximum number of National Parks (9 each) while
Andaman and Nicobar Islands has 96 and Maharashtra
has 36 Wildlife Sanctuaries (maximum in India).
CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA
Kharif Crops of India
Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested
after the rains, in September and October.
Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane,
Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.
Rabi Crops of India
Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before
the onset of the summer season, between Feb and April.
Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.
Zaid Crops
They are raised between April and June.
E.g. : Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other
vegetables.
Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)
Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the
product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton,
sugarcane etc.)
CASH CROPS
Sugarcane
Cotton

Jhum
Shifting type of cultivation practiced in the hill slopes of
Asom, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland. In
this, the trees are felled and set on fire. The ash of the
burnt trees and the other vegetation adds to the fertility
of soil. This land is used for 2-3 years till the soil gets
exhausted and the jhum is abandoned.

RAILWAYS IN INDIA
Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the
fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental
public undertaking in the country. The first train ran in
India between Bombay and Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on
April 16th 1853.
The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in
1854.
The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi.
The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was
introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona.
Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified
system in the world after Russia.
The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express whose
maximum speed is 140 km/hr.
The total route covered is approx 63,000 km.
The total number of railway stations in India is 7,100.

In UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka
In Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh
Jute & Mesta
In WB, Bihar, Asom
Tea
In Asom, West Bengal, Himachal
Pradesh
Coffee
In Kamalaka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
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The longest railway platforms are: Gorakhpur railway
station, Uttar Pradesh, India:1,366.33 m (4,483 ft)
(longest in the world).
Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of
trains in India head for.
The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata
(W.Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations
connected were Dumdum and Belgachhia.
Konkan Railways India : It is a project to shorten the
distance between Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. The
total route length is 786 km between Apta (Maharashtra)
and Mangalore (Karnataka).
Water Transport in India
The total length of navigable waterways in Indian
comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500 km
out of which 3700 km is navigable by mechanised boats.
The government has recognised the following
National Waterways of India:
NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 kms
NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 819
kms
NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 kms
NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godawari and
Krishna river) – 1,100 kms
Ports in India
The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports
into three categories, major, minor and intermediate.
India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major and the
rest intermediate and minor.
The 12 Major Ports are:
Port
Kolkata (including Haldia)
Paradip
Vishakhapatnam
Chennai
Ennore
Tuticorin
Cochin
New Mangalore
Mormugao
Jawaharlal Nehru
Mumbai
Kandla
LINES
Durand Line
MacMohan
Line

State
West Bengal
Orissa
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Kerala
Karnataka
Goa
Maharashtra
Maharashtra
Gujarat

BOUNDRY LINES
Pakistan & Afghanistan
India & China

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Radcliffe Line India & Pakistan
Maginot Line France & Germany
Oder
Line

Niesse Germany & Poland

Hindenberg
Line

Poland & Germany (at the time of First
World War)

38th Parallel

North & South Korea

49th Parallel

USA & Canada

MINERALS IN INDIA
1. IRON :
Iron is found in the earth’s surface in its crude form
known as iron-ore. India has huge deposits of iron-ore
in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra. Iron-ore is found in the mines at
Singhbhum in Bihar and Mayurbhanj in Orissa.
Steel is obtained by alloying iron with manganese.
We have big steel plants at Jamshedpur, Bhilai, Bokaro,
Durgapur, Rourkela and Bhadravati.
2.COAL :
It is known as ‘black diamond‘. Products like
nylon, chemicals, dyes, drugs and perfumes are obtained
from
the
distillation
of
coal.
Coal is found in Bihar, West Bengal, Damodar Valley,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Jharia in
Bihar and Raniganj in West Bengal are the largest coal
mines in
India.
Other coal mines are located at Suhagpur (Madhya
Pradesh) Dhanbad (Bihar) Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) and
Singarani (Andhra Pradesh).
3. PETROLEUM :
Petroleum is known as ‘black gold’. Petroleum is found
at Digboi in Assam, Ankaieshwar and Kalol in Gujarat
and Bombay High off the shore of Bombay. The
petroleum produced in India is not sufficient to meet our
requirements.
4. MANGANESE :
Manganese is used in the manufacture of steel. India is
one of the largest producers of manganese in the world.
It is found in Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
5. MICA :
It is a bad conductor of electricity. It is used as insulator
in making electrical goods like radio sets and wireless
sets.
India is the largest producer of mica in the world. Its
huge deposits are found in Gaya, Monghyr and
Hazaribagh
districts
of
Bihar.
Mica is also found in large quantities in Andhra Pradesh

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and Rajasthan. A large quantity of mica is exported to
other countries.
6. ALUMINIUM :
It is a light but hard metal. The ore from which aluminum
is produced is known as bauxite. Huge deposits of
bauxite are found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra.
7. COPPER :
It is a good conductor of electricity. It alloys with zinc to
form brass and with tin to form bronze. It occurs in small
quantities in India.
It is found at Khetri in Rajasthan. Some copper has been
found in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
8. GOLD :
Gold is produced from the mines at Kolor and Hutti in
Karnataka and Anantopuram in Andhra Pradesh.
9. DIAMOND :
Diamonds are found in the mines at Panno in Madhya
Pradesh
OTHER TOPICS:
THE KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The Koppen system is strictly empirical. This is to say
that each climate is defined according to fixed values of
temperature and precipitation, computed according to
the averages of the year or of individual months. Air
temperature and precipitation are the most easily
obtainable surface weather data, requiring only simple
equipment and a very elementary observer education. A
climate system based on these data has a great
advantage, in that the area covered by each sub-type of
climate can be delineated (outlined, profiled) for large
regions of the world.
Five major climate groups are designated by capital
letters as follows:
A–Tropical Rainy Climate: Average temperature of
every month is above 64.4 Deg.F (18 Deg.C). These
climates have no winter season. Annual rainfall is large
and exceeds annual evaporation.
B–Dry
Climate: Potential
evaporation
exceeds
precipitation on the average throughout the year. No
water surplus; hence no permanent streams originate in
B Climate Zones.

month has an average temperature above 50oF (10
Deg.C). The sea climates have both a summer and a
winter season.
D– Snowy Forests (Micro-thermal) Climates: Coldest
month has an average temperature under 26.6 Deg.F.
Average temperature of warmest month is above 50
Deg.F.
E–Polar Climates: The average temperature of warmest
month is blow 50 Deg.F. The climates have no true
summer.
Sub-Groups
Sub-groups within the five major groups are designate
by a second letter, according to the following codes:S – Steppe Climate: A semi-arid climate with about 1530 inches (38-76 cm) of rainfall annually at low latitudes.
W – Desert Climate: Arid climate. Most regions included
have less than 10 inches (25 cm) of rainfall annually.
The letters S and W are applied only to the dry B
climates, yielding two combinations – BS and BW.
f:- Moist. Adequate precipitation in all months. No dry
season. This modifier is applied to A, C and D groups,
yielding combinations – Af, Cf and Df.
w:- Dry season in the winter of the respective
hemisphere (low sun season). This modifier is applied to
A, C and D groups, yielding combinations – Aw, Cw and
Dw.
s:- Dry season in the summer of the respective
hemisphere (high sun season).
m:- Rainforest climate. Despite short, dry season in
monsoon type of precipitation cycle. Applies to only A
climates (Am).
Types of Climates
From the combination of the two letter groups, twelve
distinct climates emerge as follows:
Tropical Rainforest Climate (Af): Rainfall of the driest
month is 6 cm or more.
Monsoon variety of Af (Am): Rainfall of the direst
month is less than 6 cm. The dry season is strongly
developed.
Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw): At least one month has
rainfall less than 6 cm. The dry season is strongly
developed.

C–Mild, Humid (Meso-thermal) Climates: Coldest
month has an average temperature under 64.4 Deg.F (18
Deg.C), but above 26.6 Deg.F (-3 Deg.C); at least one
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Steppe Climate (BS): A semi-arid climate characterized
by grasslands. It occupies an intermediate position
between the desert climate “BW” and the more humid
climates
of
A,
C
and
D
groups.

7. India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands
in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive
Islands in the Arabian Sea.

Desert Climate (BW): An arid climate with annual
precipitation usually less than 40 cm.

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Mild Humid Climate with no dry season
(Cf): Temperate rainy climate, moist in all seasons.
Precipitation of the driest month averages more than 3
cm.
Mild Humid Climate with a dry winter
(Cw): Temperate rainy climate with dry winter. The
wettest month of summer has at least 10 times the
precipitation of the driest month of winter or 70% or
more of the mean annual precipitation falls in the
warmer
six
months.
Mild Humid Climate with a dry summer
(Cs): Temperate rainy climate with dry summer.
Precipitation of the driest month of summer is less than
3 cm. Precipitation of the wettest month of winter is at
least 3 times as much as that of the driest month of
summer or 70% or more of the mean annual
precipitation falls in the six months of winter.
Snowy Forest Climate with a moist winter (Df): Cold
snowy forest climate with moist in all seasons.
Snowy Forest Climate with a dry winter (Dw): Cold
snowy
forest
climate
with
dry
winter.
Tundra Climate (ET): Mean temperature of the
warmest month is above 0oC, but below 10oC.
Perpetual Frost Climate (EF):Ice-sheet climate. Mean
monthly temperatures of all months are below 0oC.

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INDIA FACTS
Highest Award-Bharat Ratna
Highest Gallantry Award-Param Vir Chakra
Longest Tributary river of India-Yamuna
Largest Lake-Wular Lake, Kashmir
Largest Lake (Saline Water)-Chilka Lake, Orrisa
Largest Man-Made Lake-Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar
(Rihand Dam)
Highest Lake-Devtal Lake, Gadhwal (Uttarakhand)
Highest Peak-Karkoram-2 of K-2(8,611 meters)
Largest Populated City-Mumbai
Largest State(Area)-Rajasthan
Largest State(Population)-Uttar Pradesh
Highest rainfall-Cherrapunji (426 inches per annum)
State wise largest area under forest-Madhya Pradesh
Largest Delta-Sunderbans Delta
Longest River Bridge-Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna
Biggest Cave temple-Ellora
Longest Road-Grand Trunk Road
Longest Canal-Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal
(Rajasthan)
Largest Museum-India Museum at Kolkata
Longest Dam-Hirakud Dam (Orrisa)
Highest Dam-Tehri Dam ( 260 meters , 850 ft )
Largest District-Kutch district
Longest Highway
NH-44 (NH-7) which turns from
Varanasi to Kanyakumari
Smallest State (Population)-Sikkim
Smallest State (Area)-Goa
Largest State (Area)-Rajasthan
Largest State (Population)-Uttar Pradesh
Largest Cave Temple-Kailash Temple, Ellora
(Maharastra)
Largest Port-Mumbai
Largest Church-Saint Cathedral (Goa)
Longest Beach-Marina Beach, Chennai
Highest Airport-Leh (Laddakh)
Largest River Island-Majuli (Brahmaputra River,
Asom)

Area Geography & Boundaries OF INDIA
1. India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933
km from East to West.
2. Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts
for 2.4% of the total world area and roughly 16% of the
world population.
Tectonic Plate Theory:3. Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including
The theory describes the large scale motion of the earth’s
the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
lithosphere. This theory is based on continental drift
coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
which explains the formation of various continents over
4. In India, of the total land mass:
millions of years; as we see them today.
• Plains Geography: 43.3%
• Plateaus: 27.7% • Hills: 18.6%
Plate Boundaries:- Based on the relative movement
• Mountains Geography: 10.7%
between two tectonic plates, there are three types of
5. In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar &
plate boundaries. They are as follows:
the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
6. Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar).
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Convergent Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent
tectonic plates move towards each other.
Divergent Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent
plates move away from each other.
Transform Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent
plates move along their borders.
Formation of India
The Indian Peninsula drifted towards the north and
finally collided with the much larger Eurasian Plate. As a
result of this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were
accumulated in the geosynclines (known as Tethys) got
folded and formed the mountain systems of the West
Asia and Himalaya. Due to the uplift of the Himalayas in
the Tethys Sea, the northern flank of the Indian
Peninsula got subsided and formed a large basin. That
basin was filled with sediments from the rivers which
came from the mountains in the north and from the
peninsula in the south. Thus, an extensive flat land of
alluvial soil was formed which is known as the northern
plains of India.
Major Mountain Ranges of the World
 Andes -South America
 Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush -South Central
Asia
 Rockies -North America
 Great Dividing Range-East Australia
 Western Ghats-Western India Caucasus Europe-Asia
 Alaska -USA
 Alps -Europe
 Apennines -Europe
 Ural -Asia
 Pennines -Europe
 Pyrenees-Europe Appalachian -North America
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HIMALAYAS
Punjab Himalaya-Between Indus and Satluj
Kumaon Himalaya-Between Satluj and Kali
Nepal Himalaya-Between Kali and Tista
Assam Himalaya-Between Tista and Dihang
IMPORTANT LAGOONS AND LAKES
VEMBNAD LAKE-Kerala -Large sized lagoons
KAYALS-Kerala-Popularly called back water in
Kerala. Peaty soils of backwaters are called Kari in
Kerala.
CHILKA LAKE-Orissa--south west of the Mahanadi
Delta.
WULAR LAKE:Jammu and Kashmir-Largest fresh
water lake of India
KOLLERU LAKE: Andhra Pradesh

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 PULICAT LAKE: Andhra Pradesh
 JAISAMAND LAKE: Rajasthan-Largest fresh water
lake of Rajasthan
 NAKKI LAKE:Rajasthan-small natural lake near Mt.
Abu surrounded by hills important as tourist place.
 LOKTAK LAKE: Manipur
SALINE WATER LAKES:
SAMBHAR LAKE-Rajasthan-Largest Lake of Rajasthan
lies on the border of Jaipur and Nagaur District.
DEEDWANA LAKE: Rajasthan
Green Revolution

overnment of India
introduced a programme called Green Revolution.
-68.
- Dr. Norman Borlaug
- Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan
used the development of highyielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation
infrastructure, and distribution of hybridized seeds,
synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.

White Revolution
 The White Revolution in the country has been
achieved by means of Operation Flood. It was carried
out in three phases.
 Operation Flood I .... 1970 - 1981
 Operation Flood II ... 1981 - 1985
 Operation Flood III ... 1985 - 1996.
 White revolution launched to increase the quality
and quanity of milk and dairy products.
 he Father of the White Revolution in India is Dr.
Varghese Kurien. He is also known as Milkman of
India.

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REMEMBER
National animal-Royal Bengal Tiger
National aquatic animal-Dolphin
National bird-Indian Peacock
National tree-Banyan tree

19. Crude Oil—–Gujarat
20. Natural Gas—–Assam/Nagaland
India’s Global Position in Mineral Wealth
1. Mica—First
2. Chromite—Second
3. Barytes—Second
4. Talc/Steatite/Pyrophllite—Second
5. Coal and Lignite—Third
6. Bauxite—Third
7. Iron Ore—Fourth
8. Steel—Fourth
9. Zinc—Seventh
10. Copper—Eighth

Riverside Cities - India
Agra- Yamuna-Uttar Pradesh
Ahmedabad- Sabarmati -Gujarat
Ayodhya- Sarayu- Uttar Pradesh
Badrinath- Ganga- Uttrakhand
Cuttack- Mahanadi- Orissa
Delhi- Yamuna- Delhi
Dibrugarh -Brahmaputra -Assam
Haridwar-Ganga--Uttaranchal
Hyderabad-- Musi-- AP
Jabalpur-- Narmada-- MP
Kanpur-- Ganga-- Uttar Pradesh
Kolkata-- Hoogly-- West Bengal
Kota-- Chambal-- Rajasthan
Lucknow--Gomti--Uttar Pradesh
Ludhiana--Sutlej--Punjab
Nasik--Godavari--Maharashtra
Pandharpur--Bhima--Maharashtra
Patna--Ganga--Bihar
Rajahmundry-Godavari-Andhra P
Sambalpur--Mahanadi-- Orissa
Srinagar--Jhelum-- J&K
Surat--Tapti--Gujarat
Tirucharapallil--Kaveri--Tamil Nadu
Varanasi-Ganga--Uttar Pradesh
Vijayawada--Krishna-Andhra Pradesh

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First Ranked States in Mineral Wealth (INDIA)
1. Coal—–Jharkhand
2. Bauxite (Aluminium Ore)—–Orissa
3. Chromite (Chromium ore)—–Orissa
4. Iron Ore—–Orissa
5. Manganese—–Orissa
6. Lead & Zinc—–Rajasthan
7. Calcite (source of marble)—–Rajasthan
8. Gypsum (used in fertiliser, plaster of paris etc.)—–
Rajasthan
9. Quartz—–Rajasthan
10. Asbestos—–Andhra Pradesh
11. Limestone—–Andhra Pradesh
12. Mica —–Andhra Pradesh
13. Barytes (used as weighting agent for drilling fluids in
oil & gas exploration, barium is used in CT Scan)—–
Andhra Pradesh
14. Diamond—–Madhya Pradesh
15. Copper Ore—–Madhya Pradesh
16. Gold—–Karnataka
17. Corundum (source of ruby, sapphire)—–Maharashtra
18. Rock Salt—–Himachal Pradesh

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Boundaries and Borders between Different
Countries
Boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan Durand Line
Boundary between India and China – McMahon Line
Line between India and Pakistan – Radcliff Line
Line between North and South Vietnam – 17th
Parallel
Line between North and South Korea – 38th parallel
Border between France and Germany – Maginot Line
The line which Pakistan claims to be the boundary
line between India and Pakistan (Not acceptable to
India) – 20th parallel.
The border between USA and Canada – 49th Parallel
The border between Germany and Poland – Oder–
Neisse Line
Boundary between Germany and Poland –
Hindenburg Line
Boundary between Namibia and Angola – 16th
Parallel
Boundary between Russia and Finland –
Mannerheim Line

1.
2.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Minerals and Their Major Producer Countries
Bauxite - Australia, Bolivia, Nigeria
Coal - USA, China, Russia, Germany / Ruhr Basin
Copper - Zaire, Zambia, Canada
Diamond - South Africa
Gold - South Africa, Russia, Zaire, USA
Iron Ore - USA, Russia, China, Germany, India
Lignite - Germany, Russia
Manganese - Russia, India, South Africa
Mica - India, USA
Petroleum - Saudi Arabia, Iran, USA, Russia, Kuwait
Platinum - Canada, South Africa
Silver - Canada, Mexico
Thorium - India, USA, South Africa
Tungsten - Russia, China
Uranium - South Africa, USA

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Continents of the World
World Continents
· Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe,
Australia and Antarctica are the seven continents of the
world.
· These seven continents were believed to be part of
Pangaea which was a single landmass around 250
million years ago.
· Due to the tectonic movement, the landmass broke up
and the component continents separated and moved
away to its present position. All these took around 1
million years to complete.
The Continents of the World,
· Asia Continents Countries
· Africa Continents Countries
· North America Continents Countries
· South America Continents Countries
· Europe Continents Countries
· Australia Continents Countries
· Antarctica Continents Countries
ASIA
1) Area: 44,485,900 sq Kms
2) Straits Strait of Malacca, Bering Strait.
3) Mountains
Pamir Knot, Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, Tien Shan,
Altai, Hindu Kush, Elburz, Pontic, Sulaiman, Zagros,
Taurus, Urals,Yablonovoi, Stanovoi.
4) Highest Point Everest (8,848 m)
5) Lowest Point Dead Sea (396.8 m)
6) Islands---Kurile, Sakhalin, Honshu, Hokkaido, Taiwan,
Borneo,Sumatra, Java, Celebes, New Guinea, Philippines,
Sri Lanka, Bahrain, Cyprus.
7)
Rivers-Eupharates, Tigris, Indus, Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Hwang-Ho, Yang-tse, Si-kiang, Amur, LenaYenisei, Ob, Irrawady, Salween, Mekong.
8) Plateaus--Anatolia Plateau, Plateau of Iran, Plateau of
Arabia, Plateau Of Tibet, Tarim Basin, Plateau of
Mongolia, Plateau of Yunnan, Deccan Plateau.
9) Peninsulas—Kamchatka Peninsula, Peninsula of
Korea, Peninsula of Indo-China, Malay Peninsula. Indian
Peninsula, Arabian Peninsula.
10) Deserts-Arab, Thar
Africa
1 Area 30,259,680 sq Kms
2 Straits--Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, Straits of Gibraltar
3 Mountains-- Atlas, Drakensberg, Kilimanjaro
4 Highest Point- Kilimanjaro (5,894 m)
5 Lowest Point-Lake Assai (-156.1 m.)
6 Islands--Madagascar, Cape Verde Islands, The
Comoros, Mauritius, Seychelles
7 Plateaus--The whole continent is a plateau
8 Deserts-- Kalahari, Sahara Namib
North America
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1 Area-- 24,235,280 sq Kms
2 Straits-- Bering Strait
3
Mountains-Rockies,
Appalachain,
Brooks,
Kuskolkwim, Alaska Range, Cascade Range, Coastal
Range, Sierra Nevada, Sierra Madre
4 Highest Point-- Mckinley (6,194 m.)
5 Lowest Point--Death Valley(-85.9 m)
6 Islands--Greenland, Baffin, Victoria,
Newfoundland, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti
7 Rivers--Mississippi, Missourie, St. Lawrence,
Mackenzie, Colorado, Hudson, Potomac, Ohio
8 Plateaus-- Columbia Plateau, Colorado Plateau,
Mexican Plateau, Canadian Shield.
9 Deserts--Chihuahuan, Colorado, Mujave, Sonoran
South America
1 Area-- 17,820,770 sq Kms
2 Straits-- Straits of Magellan
3 Mountains-- Andes
4 Highest Point- Aconcagua (6,960 m)
5 Lowest-Point Valdes Penin (-39.9 m)
6 Islands-Galapagos, Falkland, Tierra del Fuego.
7 Rivers--Amazon, Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, Uruguay
8 Plateaus-- Plateau of Bolivia, Plateau of Equador
9 Deserts-- Atacama, Pantagonia
Europe
1 Area -- 10,530,750 sq Kms
2 Straits-- Straits of Gibraltar
3 Mountains-- Alps, Pyrenes, Appenines, Dinaric Alps,
Carpathians,
Transylvanian
Mountains,
Balkans,
Caucasus, Urals
4 Highest Point-- Elbrus (5,663 M.)
5 Lowest Point--Caspian Sea (-28.0 m)
6 Islands--British Isles, Iceland, Sardinia, Sicily,Crete.
7 Rivers--Volga, Danube, Rhine, Po, Dnieper, Don, Vistula,
Elbe, Oder, Seine, Loire, Garrone, Douro, Tagus, Ural
8 Plateaus--Plateau of Bohemia, Plateau of Spain, Central
Massif
Australia
1 Area-- 7,830,682 sq Kms
2 Straits-- Bass Strait
3 Mountains-- Great Dividing Range
4 Highest Point-- Kosclusko (2,228 m.)
5 Lowest Point-- Lake Eyre (-15.8 m.)
6 Islands-- Tasmania
7 Plateaus-- Western Plateau
8 Deserts-- Gibson Desert, Great Sandy Desert, Great
Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert.

EUROPE CONTINENT
1) Europe ranks sixth. Its boundaries are the Arctic
Ocean in the west and the Mediterranean Sea in the
South. In the east, it is separated from Asia by the Ural
Mountains, the Caucasus mountains and the Caspian Sea.
 Reykjavik is also known as The Smoking Bay.
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Denmark is the smallest country of Scandinavia.
Greenland the world’s largest island and the Faroe
islands also belong to Denmark.
 Copenhagen the capital of Denmark is known as the
key to the Baltic.
 Finland is known as the Land of Forests and Lakes.
 The capital and the largest city of Finland, Helsinki is
known as the White city of the North.
 Stockholm, the capital of Sweden is known as Beauty
on the Sea.
 Milan (Italy) is known as the Manchester of Italy.
 Rome is known as City of Seven Hills
 Vatican city is the smallest Sovereign and an
independent state of the world, which is completely
surrounded by Italy.
Highest point - Mt. Elbrus, Russia
Most Southerly point - Gavdos, Greece
Largest Lake - L. Ladoga, Russia
Largest river – Volga
 Russia touches fourteen other countries and crosses
eight time zones.
 Moscow is a part of five seas the Baltic Sea, Lake
Ladoga, the Arctic Ocean, the Black sea and the
Caspian Sea.
 Mt. Blanc is the highest peak of Alps (in France)
 Important mountain ranges of Europe include Alps,
Pyrenees, the Carpathian and the Caucasus.
 The highest mountain peak of Europe, Mt. Elbrus is
the Caucasus.
 In the South - East part of Europe, there is an
extensive grassland called the Steppes.
 Rhine is the busiest inland waterway of Europe.
 British Isles is separated from the mainland of
Europe by the English Channel.
 The Pyrenees mountains separate France from
Spain.
 The Ruhr (Germany) is the biggest and the richest
coal producing area of Europe.
NORTH AMERICA
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Central American countries are known as the
Banana Republic.
Hamilton is known as the Pittsburgh of Canada.
Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia is an important ice
free port in Canada.
Vancouver, the largest city of British Columbia,
Canada situated near the mouth of Fraser river.
‘Birmingham of Canada “ - Hamilton.
Worlds largest oil refinery located on Sarnia, Canada
Smallest state of USA : Rhode Island
Largest state of USA : Alaska
Largest port in Pacific, also known as City of Golden
Gate: San Francisco, USA

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Highest point - North America
Mt. Mc Kinley, Alaska, USA
Lowest Point
Death valley, California
Largest lake
L. Superior, Canada/ USA
 Largest port in USA, situated on the bank of Hudson
river - New York City.
 Most populated city of USA also known as city of sky
scrapers- New York City.
 Mauna Kea, the highest peak in Hawai is active as a
volcano.
 Capital of Hawai, Honolulu is known as the cross
roads of Pacific.
 St. Lawrence is the busiest inland waterway in North
America.
 The Grand Canyon of Colorado river is the largest of
its kind in the world.
 The Grasslands found in the interior plains of North
America are known as the Prairies.
 Lake Superior : World’s second largest lake after
Caspian Sea.
 Lake Michigan : Only Great lake that is entirely
within the United States.
 World’s leading coffee producer : Brazil
 Largest city of South America : Sao Paulo, Brazil
 Driest place in the world : Arica, Chile
 World’s largest copper town : Chiquicamata, Chile
 Pearl of the Pacific: Guayaquil, Ecuador
 World’s highest water fall : Angel falls, Venezuela
 Strait between South America and Antarctica : Drake
Passage.
 Highest active volcano in the world : Mt. Ojas del
Salado, Argentina
 Second highest mountain systems in the world next
to the Himalayas : Andes
 Amazon basin is the home of the rubber tree.
AUSTRALIA
 Australia is the smallest continent.
 It lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Australia is the only country in the world that covers
the entire continent.
 It is also known as the Island Continent.
 Tropic of Capricon passes almost through the middle
of the continent.
 Australia was discovered by captain James Cook, an
English Seaman, in 1770.
 It is surrounded by Timor Sea in the northwest,
Arafura sea and Gulf of Carpentaria in the north,
Great Barrier Reef in the north east and Great
Australian Bight in the South.
Highest point
Mt. Kosciusko, Australia

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Lowest point : Lake Eyre, Australia
Largest Lake : Lake Eyre
 The Murray and the Darling are the major rivers of
Australia.
 Tropical grasslands are called Savannas and the
temperate grasslands found in the
 Murray Darling basin are called Downs.
 Sydney is the largest city and important sea port of
Australia.
 Tasman sea separates Australia from New Zealand.
New Zealand is divided into two islands: The
Northern Island and the Southern Island. Cook strait
seperates the two islands.
Wellington the Capital lies in the Northern Island.
ANTARCTICA
Antarctica is Earth’s southernmost continent,
underlying the South Pole.
It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern
hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle,
and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
Highest point : Vinson Massif, 4,897 m
Lowest point : Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,555 m
Longest river : Onyx River, 25 km
OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY
 The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by twelve
countries and officially entered into force on June
23rd, 1961.
 The twelve countries had significant interests in
Antarctica at the time: Argentina, Australia, Belgium,
Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South
Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the
United States.
 Forty-six countries have signed the treaty.
 The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral
mining, supports scientific research, and protects the
continent’s eco zone.
FACTS 2
Largest total area ... Russia, 17,098,242 km²
Largest land area... Russia, 17,075,200 km²
Largest water area... Canada, 891,163 km²
Longest coastline ... Canada, 243,792 km
Highest coastline to area ratio ...Micronesia, 8,706.553
m/km²
Most countries bordered: ...Russia and China
Largest forest area ... Russia, 8,087,900 km²
Hottest, Coldest, Driest,Wettest
Hottest Place Dalol, Denakil Depression, Ethiopia,
annual average temperature (93.2°F, 34°C)
Coldest Place Plateau Station, Antarctica, annual
average temperature (-56.7°C)

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Wettest Place Mawsynram, Assam, India, annual
average rainfall (11,873 mm, 467.4")
Driest Place Atacama Desert, Chile, imperceptible
rainfall on a yearly basis.
Important mountain ranges
Andes -- South America
Rockies -- North America
Atlas --- Africa
Kilimancharo --- Africa
Appalechian--- America
Ural ---Europe
Alps ---Europe
Karpathyan ---Europe
Mount Eribus --- Antartica
Himalayam --- Asia
VOLCANOES
Important volcanoes
Vezuvias --- Italy
Etna --- Italy
Stromboli ---Italy
Barren--- India (Andaman Nicobar)
Kilimancharo --- Tanzania
Krakathove--- Indonesia
Pina thubo --- Philippense
•Most of the volcanoes found near Pacific Ocean
• Ring of fire - Pacific
• Lighthouse of the Pacific - Ezalko
• Lighthouse of the Mediteranian - Stromboli
DESERTS
Fozil desert--- Kalahari
Little Sahara --- Australia
Death desert--- Thakkala Makkan
Painted desert --- North America
Coldest desert --- Gobi
Warmest desert --- Sahara
Driest desert--- Attakkama
Great Indian desert --- Thar
Roob Asavali
Attakkama
Sahara
Kalahari
Nameeb
Great Sandy
Great Victoria
Thakkala Makkan
Sahel
Thar

Important Deserts
-- Asia
-- South America
-- Africa
-- Africa
--Nameebia
--Australia
-- Australia
--China
--China
-- India

ISLANDS
Island of the volcanoes
-- Iceland
Island of the tortoise
-- Galappagose
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Island of the Sailors
-- Samova
Island of the inspiration
-- Tazmania
Pearl of the Antilles
-- Cuba
Friendly island
---- Tonga
Spring island
----Jamaica
Birthplace of Napolean
-- Kozhsikka Island
Biggest island
--Greenland
Smallest island nation
-- Navru
• Folkland islands, Canari islands, Kozhzikka, St. Helena,
Bahamas Burmuda islands situated in Atlantic Ocean.

TRIBAL GROUPS
1. Abhors: People of Mongoloid stock living in the
north-eastern parts of India.
2. Adivasis: Tribals of Bastar district, Chhattisgarh.
3. Angami: Tribals of Nagaland.
4. Apatanis: Tribals of Arunachal Pradesh.
5. Badagas: Tribals of Nilgiri region in Tamil Nadu.
6. Baiga: Tribals of Madhya Pradesh.
7. Bakkarwals: People of Jammu and Kashmir who
rear sheep and goats.
8. Bhils: People of Dravidian stock now living in central
LAKES
India (MP) and Rajasthan.
Important Lakes
9. Bhotias: Tribals of Garhwal and Kumaon region in
Superior
-- North America
Uttaranchal, Sikkim and West Bengal.
Ladol
--Europe
10. Birhors: A tribal group of Madhya Pradesh,
Caspian
-- Asia
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa.
Victoria
--Africa
11. Chenchus: Tribals of Andhra Pradesh.
Ayar
--Australia
12. Caddis: Tribals of Himachal Pradesh who rear sheep.
Marakkoiba
-- South America
13. Garos: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Assam.
Vozthok
--Antartica
14. Gonds: Tribals inhabiting forests in Madhya
Azad
--Syria
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
Nazar
--Egypt
15. Gujjars: Animal rearers of Jammu and Kashmir and
• Land of ten thousand lakes --Minazotta
Himachal Pradesh.
• Land of thousand lakes
-- Finland
16. Jaintias: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Assam.
• Oldest lake, Deepest lake
-- Baikkal (Russia)
17. Jarawas: One of the oldest tribes of Andaman and
• Largest Island Lake
-- Manitollin
Nicobar Islands inhabiting Little Andamans.
• Largest freshwater lake
--Superior
18. Khasa: Tribals of Jaunsar Bhabar region in
• Largest salt water lake
-- Caspian sea
Uttaranchal.
• Largest artificial lake
-- Volta (Ghana)
19. Khasis: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Tripura.
20. Khonds: Tribals inhabiting parts of Orissa.
21. Kol : Tribals of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
22. Kotas: Tribals of Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu.
23. Kuki: A tribe of Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and
Tripura.
24. Lahaulas: Tribals inhabiting Lahaul region in
Himachal
Pradesh.
25. Lepchas: Original tribal inhabitants of Sikkim.
26. Lushai: Tribals of Mizoram and Tripura.
27. Murias: Tribals of Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh.
28. Mikirs: A tribal group of Assam.
29. Moplahs: Muslims of the Malabar district in Kerala.
30. Munda: A tribe of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa,
Tripura and Chhattisgarh.
31. Nagas: Tribals of Nagaland.
32. Oraon: Tribals inhabiting parts of Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and West Bengal.
33. Onges: One of the tribes of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
34. Santhals: Tribals living in West Bengal, Jharkhand
and Orissa.
35. Scntinelcse: One of the small statured tribes of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
36. Shompens: Another tribal group of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
37. Todas: Tribals of the Nilgiri Hills.
38. Uralis: Tribals inhabiting parts of Kerala.
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39. Varlis: Tribals of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Dadra &
Nagar Haveli.

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